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12. Charity

Charity as one of the two principal duties

Charity towards fellow human beings, in its widest sense, is laid down in the Holy Quran as the second great pillar on which the structure of Islam stands. This is made plain in the very beginning of the Holy Book (2:3–4) where the main principles of Islam, three theoretical and two practical, are laid down. The three theoretical essentials are belief in God, in Divine revelation and in the Hereafter; and the two practical are keeping up prayer and spending out of what God has given to man. Muslims are described there as those:

“who believe in the Unseen and keep up prayer and spend out of what We have given them.” — 2:3

Prayer, which has already been discussed in the last chapter, is the means of the realization of the Divine in man, while spending out of whatever has been given to man, stands for charity in a broad sense, i.e., for all acts of benevolence and doing good to humanity in general. For what God has given to man is not only the wealth which he possesses but all the faculties and powers with which he has been gifted.

That benevolence, or the doing of good to man, is one of the two main­stays of religion, is a constant theme of the Holy Quran. For example, rejecting the Jewish and Christian claims to salvation on the basis of certain dogmas, the Holy Book says:

“No, whoever submits himself entirely to Allah and he is the doer of good to others, he has his reward from his Lord, and there is no fear for such nor shall they grieve.” — 2:112

In this verse submission to Allah takes the place of keeping up prayer, and the doing of good to humanity is spoken of in place of spending out of what has been given to man. The numerous ordinances relating to various aspects of life, whether contained in the Quran or in the practice and sayings of the Holy Prophet, are only offshoots of these two practical essentials of religion.

Prayer is useless if it does not lead to charity

The relation in which prayer stands to charity is made clear by the order in which the two are mentioned. When prayer and charity are spoken of together, and this combination is of frequent occurrence in the Quran, prayer always takes precedence over charity, but this is only because prayer prepares a man for the service of humanity. Verse 3 of chapter 2, which we quoted above, begins with mention of belief in God, the Unseen, and this is immediately followed by an injunction to keep up prayer, and this again by another to do acts of benevolence. This is to show the natural order. Belief in the Unseen is the starting point of man’s spiritual progress. But this would lead to no good if the next step, the seeking of communion with the Unseen through prayer, does not follow. And this again is meaningless if it does not lead to acts of benevolence. Prayer, therefore, is the first step because it leads to the second, that is, charity. This is elsewhere made plain:

“Woe to the praying ones, who are unmindful of their prayers, who do good to be seen, and refrain from [small] acts of kindness.” — 107:4–7

Conception of charity in Islam

The most frequently recurring words for charity are infāq which means ‘spending benevolently’, iḥsān which means ‘the doing of good’, zakāt which means ‘growth’ or ‘purification’, and ṣadaqah which is derived from the root ṣidq, meaning ‘truth’, and comes to signify a ‘charitable deed’. The very words used to denote chari­table deeds are an indication of the broadness of its conception. The Holy Quran not only lays stress on such great deeds of charity as the emancipation of slaves,1 the feeding of the poor,2 taking care of orphans3 and doing good to humanity in general, but gives equal emphasis to smaller acts of benevolence. It is for this reason that, in 107:7 quoted above, the withholding of small acts of kindness and charity is stated to be against the spirit of prayer. And in a similar strain, the speaking of a kind word to parents is referred to as iḥsān in 17:23, and generally the use of kind words is recommended as in itself a charitable deed in many places, for example 2:83 and 4:8.

Hadith is much more explicit. To remove from the road anything which may cause hurt is called a ṣadaqah or a charitable deed.4 According to another hadith, “there is a ṣadaqah (charity) due on every limb with every new sun, and to do justice among people is also a charity”.5 Another report gives yet more detail:

“On every limb there is a charity due every day; a man helps another to ride his animal, it is a charity; or he helps him to load his animal, this is also a charity; and so is a good word; and every step, which a man takes in going to pray, is a charity; and to show [someone] the way is a charity.” 6

Examples of other charitable deeds are “your salutation to people,” “your enjoin­ing what is right and forbidding what is wrong,” “refraining from doing evil to anyone” and so on.7 The circle of those towards whom an act of charity may be done is equally wide. The Holy Prophet said:

“Whatever you feed yourself with is a charity, and whatever you feed your children with is a charity, and whatever you feed your wife with is a charity, and whatever you feed your servant with is a charity.”

“Whoever tills a field and birds and beasts eat of it, it is a charity.” 8

The Quran also speaks of extending charity not only to all people including believers and unbelievers9 but also to the dumb creation.10

Voluntary charity

Charity, in the sense of giving away one’s wealth, is of two kinds, volun­tary and obligatory. Voluntary charity is generally mentioned in the Holy Quran as infāq or iḥsān or ṣadaqah, and though the Holy Book is full of injunc­tions on this subject, and hardly a leaf is turned which does not bring to the mind the grand object of the service of humanity as the goal of man’s life, the subject is specially dealt with in verses 261 to 273 of the second chapter. The reward of charity is first spoken of:

“The parable of those who spend their wealth in the way of Allah is as the parable of a grain growing seven ears, in every ear a hundred grains. And Allah multiplies further for whom He pleases.” — 2:261

A charitable deed must be done as a duty which man owes to man, so that it conveys no idea of the superiority of the giver or the inferiority of the receiver:

“Those who spend their wealth in the way of Allah, then do not follow up what they have spent with reproach or injury, their reward is with their Lord. … A kind word with forgiveness is better than charity followed by injury. … O you who believe, do not make your charity worthless by reproach and injury, like him who spends his wealth to be seen by people and does not believe in Allah and the Last Day.” — 2:262–264

Love of God should be the motive in all charitable deeds, so that the very doing of them fosters the feeling that all mankind is but a single family:

“And they give food, out of love for Him, to the poor and the orphan and the captive.” — 76:8

“…but righteous is the one who… gives away wealth out of love for Him to the near of kin and the orphans and the needy and the traveller and to those who ask and to set slaves free.” — 2:177

“And the parable of those who spend their wealth to seek Allah’s pleas­ure and for the strengthening of their souls is as the parable of a garden on elevated ground…” — 2:265

Only good things and well-earned wealth should be given in charity:

“O you who believe, spend out of the good things that you earn and of what We bring forth for you from the earth, and do not aim at the bad to spend from it, while you would not take it yourselves unless you turned a blind eye to it.” — 2:267

Charitable deeds may be done openly or secretly:

“If you manifest charity, how excellent it is! And if you hide it and give it to the poor, it is good for you. And it will do away with some of your evil deeds.” — 2:271

Those who do not beg should be the first to receive charity:

“[Charity is] for the poor who are confined in the way of Allah, they cannot go about in the land; the ignorant man thinks them to be rich on account of their abstaining from begging. You can recognize them by their mark — they do not beg of people demandingly.” — 2:273

Significance of zakāt

Obligatory charity is generally mentioned under the name zakāt, but it is sometimes called a ṣadaqah, especially in Hadith. The word zakāt is derived from zakā, which means ‘it (a plant) grew’. The other deriva­tives of this word, as used in the Holy Quran, carry the sense of purification from sins. The Holy Prophet is again and again spoken of as purifying those who would follow him,11 and the purifica­tion of the soul is repeatedly mentioned as being real success in life.12 The word zakāt is also used in the sense of purity from sin.13 The idea of purity, and that of the growth of human faculties and success in life, are thus connected together. Zakāt is wealth which is taken from the rich and given to the poor, being so called because it makes wealth grow, and because the giving away of wealth is a source of purification. In fact both these reasons hold true. The giving away of wealth to the poorer members of the community increases the wealth of the community as a whole, and at the same time it purifies the giver’s heart of the inordinate love of wealth which brings numerous sins in its train. The Holy Prophet himself has described zakāt as wealth “which is taken from the rich and returned to the poor”.14

Importance of zakāt in Islam

The two commandments, to keep up prayer and to give zakāt, often go together. This combination of the two is met with in the earliest chapters of the Holy Quran, as well as in those which were revealed towards the end of the Holy Prophet’s life. Thus in ch.73, which is undoubtedly one of the very earliest revelations, we have:

“…and keep up prayer and give the zakāt and offer to Allah a goodly gift.” — 73:20

And in the ninth chap­ter, which is the latest in revelation, we have:

“Only he can maintain the mosques of Allah who believes in Allah and the Last Day, and keeps up prayer and gives the zakāt and fears none but Allah.” — 9:18

Not only are prayer (ṣalāt) and zakāt mentioned together in a large number of passages but also these two are treated as being the basic ordinances of the religion of Islam, and their carrying into practice is often men­tioned as being sufficient indication that one is a believer in the religion of Islam. The two verses quoted above point to the same conclusion.15

Zakāt as the basic principle of every religion

Ṣalāt and zakāt are also spoken of together as the basic ordinances of the religion of every prophet. Thus of Abraham and his posterity, it is said:

“And We made them leaders who guided people by Our command, and We revealed to them the doing of good and the keeping up of prayer and the giving of zakāt.” — 21: 73

The Israelite law is also said to have contained a similar com­mandment:

“And Allah said: Surely I am with you. If you keep up prayer and give the zakāt and believe in My mes­sengers and assist them and offer to Allah a goodly gift, I will certainly cover your evil deeds, and make you enter gardens in which rivers flow.” — 5:12

Ishmael is also spoken of as giving the same command­ment to his followers:

“And he enjoined on his people prayer and zakāt, and he was one in whom his Lord was well-pleased.” — 19:55

Even Jesus is said to have received a similar Divine commandment:

“…and He has enjoined on me prayer and zakāt so long as I live.” — 19:31

This view of religion shows that, according to the Holy Quran, the service of humanity and the amelioration of the condition of the poor has always been among the principal aims and objects of religion. It is, however, true that the same stress has not been laid on this principle in the previous religions, and, more­over, the insti­tution of zakāt, like every other prin­ciple of religion, has been brought to perfection, along with the perfec­tion of religion, in Islam.

Problem of the distribution of wealth

One of the greatest problems facing humanity is undoubtedly the problem of the distribution of wealth, with which is also bound up the question of political power. The system of capitalism, which is the foundation-stone, so to speak, of the materialistic civilization of the West, has led to the concentration of wealth in fewer and fewer hands. Political power has followed in the wake of wealth, and at the bidding of the capitalist the politician has to declare war and peace. The insatiable thirst for wealth on the part of the capitalists, who are the real controllers of political power, has reduced many nations of the world to a state of slavery, and regular plunder has been legalized under various high-sounding phrases.

The reaction against capitalism set in towards the middle of the nineteenth century. It came under the name of socialism to liberate the people, but it is as much of a bondage as capitalism. The question is, does state-ownership of all means of production finally solve the great problem of the distri­bution of wealth? The people entrusted with the carrying out of the scheme, the state-agents, would degenerate into an oligarchy similar to the oligarchy of capitalism since human nature is too prone to these tendencies, and hardly any remedy is offered to check such tendencies. But there is more than this. What came as the friend of labour defeats its own end by denying to labour its fruits. The rigid system of doling out the necessaries of life to all alike, to the indolent and the diligent, the stupid and the intelligent, will undoubtedly foster conditions which would soon become unbearable for humanity; for it is going directly against na­ture and nature’s recognized laws. But its evil results cannot be seen in a day.16

Islam’s solution of wealth problem

To Islam is due the credit of not only solving the wealth problem but, at the same time, developing the higher sentiments and building up charac­ter, on which alone can be laid the foundations of a lasting civilization for the human race. Islam accomplishes both objects by its state institution of charity, which goes under the name of zakāt. Every possessor of wealth is required to contribute annually one-fortieth of his wealth to a common fund, which is managed by the state, or by the Muslim community where there is no Muslim state, and this fund is utilized by the state or community for the amelioration of the condition of the poor. Zakāt, there­fore, acts not only as a levelling influence but also as a means of develop­ing the higher sentiments of man, the sentiments of love and sympathy towards his fellow-man; while the rigid system of state ownership and equality of distribution helps to kill man’s higher instincts. By this means, too, wealth is made to circulate in the body-politic of Islam, just as blood cir­culates in a living organism, a fixed portion of the wealth of the richer members being drawn to the centre, from where it is sent forth to those parts of the body-politic which need it most. The institution of zakāt thus becomes not only a levelling influence but also one of the means for the uplift of the nation as a whole.

Zakāt is a state institution

It should be borne in mind that zakāt is not simply obligatory charity. It is a state institution or, where there is no Muslim state, a national institution. The individual is not at liberty to calculate and spend his zakāt as he likes. It must be collected by the state on a national basis, and spent by the state or community. Where the Holy Quran describes the main heads of the expenditure of zakāt, it mentions an item of expenditure on offi­cials appointed to collect and distribute the same, which shows clearly that, by the institution of zakāt, it contemplated either a department of the state or at least a public fund managed entirely by a public body. The donor is not required to give zakāt to deserving persons, but to contribute it to a fund which must be used for the uplift of the community. It was in this sense that the Holy Prophet understood it, and when he assumed control of the government, he made zakāt a state insti­tution, appointing officials to collect it and directing his governors to do the same in distant provinces.

Property on which zakāt is payable

Though injunctions relating to zakāt are met with in very early revela­tions, the details were given only after Islam was established at Madinah. Silver and gold are the two commodities which man has always loved to hoard, and besides this these are the two precious metals which are the basis of the currencies of the world. These two, therefore, find special mention as being articles on which zakāt must be paid. Ornaments made of silver or gold were treated as silver or gold. And cash, whether in the form of coins or notes or bank deposits, would follow the same rule. Pre­cious stones were excepted from zakāt, because in taking a part, in this case, the whole would have to be broken up or damaged. Articles of mer­chandise were also considered as being subject to zakāt to whatever class they may belong. Animals used for trade purposes were subject to zakāt only if they were kept on pastures belonging to the state. There is no men­tion of immovable property, such as agricultural lands and house property, among the things on which zakāt was levied, but the produce of land, whether cereals or fruits, was subject to a tax called ‘ushr, literally, the tenth part. It has been treated as zakāt; actually, however, it falls within the category of land revenue. Since zakāt is a tax on property, therefore it is realizable though the property may belong to a minor.

Niṣāb and rate of zakāt

Zakāt was an annual charge on property which remained in the posses­sion of a person for a whole year, when its value reached a certain limit, called niṣāb. Niṣāb differed with different kinds of property, the most important being the cases of silver and gold. The niṣāb of cash was the same as that of silver or gold, accord­ing to whether the cash was held in silver or gold. In the case of merchandise of all kinds, the value was calculated on the basis of, and the niṣāb was judged by, the silver standard. In the case of ornaments, the niṣāb was that of silver or of gold, according to the metal they were made of. But jewels and the like would be excepted, and only the weight of silver or gold would be considered in determining the niṣāb. There were also different levels of niṣāb in case of animals such as bulls, cows, goats etc. There was also a niṣāb in the case of cereals.

With the exception of animals, zakāt was levied at almost a uniform rate, being 2½ per cent of the accumulated wealth. In the case of animals, camels and sheep, detailed rules were laid down, and animals of a particular age were taken as zakāt when the herd reached a specified number. However, in the main, the rate of 2½ per cent seems to have been kept in view. In case of ‘ushr, as already stated, it is not technically zakāt; it is really land revenue. The state takes only one-tenth of the produce of agricultur­al land when it is grown with the aid of rain-water or natural springs, and one-twentieth when irrigated by wells or other artificial means in which labour is engaged by the owner of the land.

Zakāt under modern conditions

It will thus be seen that zakāt proper is only a charge on accumu­lated wealth, and is intended to do away with the inequalities of capitalism. Wealth has a tendency to accumulate, and zakāt aims at its partial redistribution in such a manner that the community, as a whole, may derive advantage from it. A part of the amassed wealth or capital of every individual is taken away annually and distributed among the poor and the needy. Zakāt would therefore be payable on all cash hoardings, or hoardings in gold or silver, as well as on any form of capital, whether in the shape of cash or kind. Precious stones, as already stated, are excepted, because the payment of zakāt on them would necessitate their sale. Machinery employed in industry must follow the same rule. It should, in fact, be regarded in the same light as the implements of a skilled worker, and its earnings become taxable when the necessary conditions as to the assessment of zakāt are fulfilled. Stock-in-trade should be treated in a similar manner; that is to say, only the yearly profit should be taxable, not the stock itself. In the case of all things on which zakāt is payable, whether cereals, live-stock or other articles of merchandise, their value should be determined, and zakāt levied at the universal rate of 2½ per cent. Where the Muslims live under non-Muslim governments, and the collection and disbursement of zakāt cannot be undertaken by these governments, the duty devolves on the Muslim community as a whole, and the institution of zakāt must take the shape of a national Muslim institution in every country where there is a Muslim population.

How zakāt should be spent

The items of the expenditure of zakāt are thus expressly stated in the Holy Quran:

“Charity (ṣadaqāt) is only for the poor and the needy, and those employed to administer it, and those whose hearts are made to incline to truth, and [to free] the captives, and those in debt, and in the way of Allah, and for the traveller — an ordinance (farīḍah) from Allah, and Allah is Knowing, Wise.” — 9:60

As already noted, zakāt is sometimes mentioned under the name of ṣadaqah. That this is the significance of ṣadaqāt (its plural form) here is made clear by the concluding words of the verse, where it is called an “ordinance”, farīḍah or an obligatory duty, this word being applicable to zakāt only.

The eight heads of expenditure spoken of here may be divided into three classes. The first relates to those who stand in need of help, including the poor, the needy, those whose hearts are made to incline to truth, captives, debtors and travellers. Se­condly, there are the officials appointed for collection and disbursement of the fund. And, thirdly, a part of the zakāt is required to be spent in the way of Allah. A few words of explanation may be added as regards each class.

It will be seen that six kinds of people fall under the first head. The first, translated as “poor”, are fuqarā’ (plural of faqīr), and the second, translated as “needy”, are masākīn (plural of miskīn). There exists a good deal of difference as to the real distinction between these two words, but keeping their literal significance in view, the real distinction appears to be that faqīr is one who is unable to earn on account of some disability, while miskīn is one who, though fit to earn sufficient, is unable to do so on account of poverty or lack of resources. The miskīn is the needy person who, if given a little help, can earn livelihood for himself. The unemployed would fall in this category.

These are the two chief classes for whose benefit the institution of zakāt is maintained, and hence they are separated from others by a mention of the establishment. The other groups falling in this class are also of persons who stand in need of help for some sufficient reason. There are those whose hearts are made to incline to truth, that is, people who are in search of truth but unable to find means to have access to it on account of poverty. In this category would also fall new converts to Islam who are deprived of the means of their subsistence because of their conversion. Then there are the captives, or those who have been deprived of their liberty, and are unable to regain it by their own exertion. The freeing of slaves falls in this category. Then there are the debtors who are unable to pay off their own debts, and, lastly, there are the travellers who are stranded in a foreign country or in a distant place, and are unable to reach their homes.

There are two other heads of expenditure of zakāt. The first of these is the maintenance of an establishment and office for the collection of zakāt. This shows that zakāt was meant to be collected at some central place, and then distributed, and the maintenance of people who did this work was a charge under this head. The Quran, therefore, does not al­low the giving away or spending of zakāt according to the individual’s choice.17

Zakāt may be spent in defence and propagation of Islam

The only remaining item of expenditure is what is called fī sabīl-illāh, or “in the way of Allah”, which is accepted generally as mea­n­­ing fighters defend­ing the faith. While such fighters are a most important national need of a community, it is equally true that they are an exception and not the rule, and hence the significance of the words “in the way of Allah” cannot be limited to them. But there is another paramount need of the Muslim community which is called the great jihād, in the Quran:

“And if We pleased, We could raise a warner in every town. So do not obey the unbelievers, and strive against them a mighty striving (jihād-an kabīr-an) with it.” — 25:51–52

The personal pronoun it, as the context clearly shows, refers to the Quran, and therefore striving with the Quran, or taking the message of the Quran to distant corners of the world, is the greatest jihād of Islam. The item of expenditure “in the way of Allah” hence refers to both these paramount needs of national existence: war in self-defence (being the only kind of war allowed to Muslims) and the work of the propa­gation of Islam. The latter, i.e., the propagation of Islam, is the greatest need of this age. Hence it will be seen that the institution of zakāt, while chiefly aiming at the amelio­ration of the condition of the poor, has also in view the defence and ad­vancement of the Muslim community as a whole.

Other national charitable institutions

Zakāt, though the most important, is not, however, the only national institution of charity set up by Islam. There are two others of a similar nature, both connected with the ‘Īd festivals, whereby into every Mus­lim heart is instilled the idea that even when in his happiest mood, he must never forget the distress of his poorer brethren. The first of these institutions is the charity connected with the ‘Īd al-Fiṭr. Every Muslim on that occasion is required to give away in charity a certain measure of food, or its equivalent in money. This sum must be collected by every Muslim community and then dis­tributed among those who deserve it. Here too the choice of distribution is not with the individual but with the community (see also pages here–here). The second institution is connect­ed with the ‘Īd al-Aḍḥā on which occasion not only are the poor members of the community fed with the meat of the sacrificed animals, but the skins of those animals (and also dried or preserved meat, in case the supply is greater than the demand) are sold, and the sum thus realized spent on some charitable object of national value, such as the propaga­tion of Islam (see also pages here–here).

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Notes to Chapter 12

1. The Quran, 90:13, 2:177.

2. The Quran, 69:34, 90:11–16, 107:1–3.

3. The Quran, 17:34, 76:8, 89:17, 90:15, 93:9, 107:2.

4. Bukhari, book 46: ‘Oppressions’, ch. 24, ch. heading. See also book 56: ‘Jihād’, ch. 128, h. 2989.

5. Bukhari, book 53: ‘Peace-making’, ch. 11, h. 2707.

6. Bukhari, book 56: ‘Jihād’, ch. 72, h. 2891. See also ch. 128, h. 2989.

7. Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, v. 2, p. 329 and v. 4, p. 395.

8. Ibid., v. 4, p. 131 and v. 4, p. 55.

9. “Their guidance is not your duty, but Allah guides whom He pleases. And whatever good thing you spend, it is to your good. And you do not spend but to seek Allah’s pleasure” (The Quran, 2:272).

Editor’s Note: Reports relating to this verse show that it means that a Muslim must also extend his charity to the poor among sinners, non-Muslims and even opponents of Islam, and not let the fact that they are not following true guidance prevent him from helping them. See Commentary of Ibn Kathir under this verse; see also Bukhari, book 24: ‘Zakāt’, ch. 15, h. 1421.

10. “And in their wealth was a due share for the beggar and for one who is deprived” — 51:19. The word maḥrūm or ‘deprived’ is understood as applying both to a poor man who does not beg and to dumb animals as they are not capable of speaking. (See also 70:24–25.)

11. The Quran, 2:129, 2:151, 3:163, 9:103, 62:2.

12. The Quran, 91:9, 92:18.

13. The Quran, 19:12–13, 18:81.

14. Bukhari, book 24: ‘Zakāt’, ch. 1, h. 1395.

15. Some more examples of such verses are: 98:5, 31:2–4 and 9:11.

16. Editor’s Note: These words were written in the 1930s. In The Religion of Islam, in this discussion Maulana Muhammad Ali had, after noting that communism “holds Russia in its grip”, added: “Whether, in Russia, it has come to stay is a question which only the future can decide.” Just over fifty years later, communism collapsed in the old Soviet Union.

17. There is a hadith which states that the Holy Prophet allowed up to one-third of the zakāt to be spent by an individual for those whom he thought fit to receive the zakāt (Abu Dawud, book 9: ‘Zakāt’, ch. 15, h. 1605). Explaining this hadith, Imam Shafi‘i says that the one-third or one-fourth was to be left so that the person from whom the zakāt was taken should spend the portion left on his relatives or neigh­bours as he desired (see the commentary on Abu Dawud, ‘Aun al-Ma‘būd ‘alā Sunani Abī Dāwūd, under this hadith).