How I became an Ahmadi by Dr Basharat Ahmad

I had been interested in religion from childhood. Since the earliest, I always had an overwhelming desire to benefit from the company of religious scholars (ulama). If a maulvi or preacher happened to be giving a lecture in our locality, I could not restrain myself from attending it. My forefathers were Hanafis but while I had an interest in religion I was also greatly attracted towards investigating religious questions and concepts.

Some of my acquaintances belonged to the Ahl-i-Hadith.¹ As a result of my investigations I joined the Ahl-i-Hadith. I could not understand that since there existed Hadith reports of the Holy Prophet Muhammad, how one could give preference to the verdict of any jurist. This was the time when the Ahl-i-Hadith were called ‘Wahhabi’² and were assaulted in mosques and evicted from them. Our family was at that time residing in the city of Sialkot and we stayed in the Sadar Market. I was, however, studying in town at the Scotch Mission High School. On becoming an Ahl-i-Hadith follower, I immediately started clasping my hands on my chest in prayer and saying ‘Ameen’ audibly when praying in congregation at the Sadar main Mosque.³ The imam of the mosque, the late Maulvi Mubarik Ali, did not object or say anything as he was a learned man, but others in the congregation got agitated, there was much noise and uproar and dire threats were uttered against me. Finally the matter was reported to the elder of my family, my grandfather. He was quite annoyed with me. I did not argue with him, but started attending the Friday congregational prayers at the Ahl-i-Hadith Mosque of the town. The late Maulvi Abdul Karim used to lead the prayers, and I had complete freedom to raise my hands and say ‘Ameen’ in an audible manner.

I have said that I used to study in the Scotch Mission High School. In my class were also the late Maulvi Qa’im-ud-din and the late Dr. Sir Muhammad Iqbal, the same Dr. Iqbal who is the famous poet and philosopher. Reverend Youngson was our Principal and was a very intelligent Christian priest. Maulvi Qa’im-ud-din and Dr. Iqbal would debate and argue with Rev. Youngson during the Gospel study hour, but in the discussions on the issue of the Messiah being still alive and being superior to the Prophet Muhammad they could not stand up to the reverend. On one occasion there was a terrible calamity when the reverend Youngson quoted the Quranic verse Ya ‘isa, inni mutawaffi-ka wa rafi‘u-ka ilayya⁴ as an argument in favour of the superiority of Jesus Christ. Dr. Iqbal, being ruffled, responded that this verse was not from the Quran. This was a clear victory for the reverend: the verse was from the Quran. We Muslims felt very discomfited. I fretted within myself and sometimes, may God forgive me, I even felt annoyed with God, that by bodily raising Jesus to the heavens He had made the Muslims to be humiliated by the Christians. At last, the daily criticisms of Islam by the Christian clergymen resulted in my having doubts about the veracity of Islam and many a time I thought that I should leave Islam. The Arya Samaj was a new, popular movement. Hindu boys used to boast about its merits. I frequently thought, why not become an Arya. But the love of Islam which had been with me since childhood did not allow this. The scholars of Islam, whom we relied on and had great respect for, however, provided no satisfactory explanations.

In 1891, during the period when I was restless in my mind, one day I was lying on a bed in our courtyard when my paternal grandfather handed me a book and said:

“Look at the wonder of the fourteenth century⁵ — a man, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad of Qadian, has claimed to be a likeness of the Messiah, and has published this book.”

I took the book, which was Fath Islam (Victory of Islam) and started reading it. Immediately the style of writing captivated me. As I continued reading, I felt as if the words of the book were directly entering into my heart and soul, and when I read the arguments and proofs showing that Jesus had died a natural death, I jumped with joy. I read the whole book in one sitting and flatly told my grandfather that this man was truthful. On this he said:

“No, you are yet a child. You have not seen our religious scholars. I hear they are preparing a universal proclamation of kufr (heresy) against this man.”

But the truth of the book had cast its influence upon me. I was not willing to give up belief in the natural death of Jesus. I had received this gem after so much wanting. The same verse, Ya ‘isa, inni mutawaffi-ka wa rafi‘u-ka ilayya,⁶ which had always troubled me was now beautifully satisfying my heart. The situation now in the central market of Sialkot was that in each and every meeting and function where people gathered Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was under discussion, but he was invariably opposed.

I had a dream, around this period, which in its nature was quite strange. I saw a very tall minaret, in the top of which the Holy Prophet Muhammad was present. I was eagerly climbing the stairs of the minaret to meet the Holy Prophet. On my lips was the following verse of poetry:

Some say ‘glory to me’, some say ‘I am the truth’,
Sing your singing, this is a point for reflection.

While reading this verse and climbing the stairs I woke up. At that time I did not understand the meaning of this dream. But now I know that being asked to reflect on ‘glory to me’ and ‘I am the truth’ referred to the concept of burooz (someone coming as the manifestation of the Holy Prophet), and the presence of the Holy Prophet indicated the coming of his burooz. The significance of climbing the minaret was exactly that mentioned in the revelation of Hazrat Mirza sahib that the “feet of the Muhammadans would be established firmly on a lofty minaret”.

After some days the town was abuzz with the news that Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the claimant of Messiahship was coming to Sialkot. Recently, we had listened to the lectures of Maulvi Nur-ud-din of Bhera, Hafiz Abdul Mannan of Wazirabad and Maulana Nazir Husain of Delhi who had also visited Sialkot. On the arrival of Hazrat Mirza sahib too, we went to town. He was staying at the house of the late Hakim Hissam-ud-din. The street to the house was full of people. As I and a friend squeezed our way through the crowd, I saw Hazrat Mirza sahib leave one house and enter the next. In that brief time, when I glanced at his face I saw such a glimpse of saintliness and light that I could not help feeling that this could not be the face of an imposter; it was the radiant countenance of a truthful man.

Hazrat Mirza sahib lead the asr prayers in Hakim Hissam-ud-din’s mosque, and I along with others prayed behind him. After the prayers he sat in the doorway of the mosque. A large number of people were present in the mosque and they asked him various questions on religious matters. His answers were so satisfying that one’s faith was renewed. Sitting near me was Maulvi Abdul Karim, the imam of the Ahl-i-Hadith mosque who had pledged allegiance to Hazrat Mirza sahib. He said to me: Look, do you see the light upon Hazrat Mirza sahib’s face? I confirmed that I did.

In the evening we returned home, but my mind had been deeply impressed. When we returned the next day, Hazrat Mirza sahib was giving a commentary on the Sura Fatiha. Today of course every Ahmadi child knows this particular explanation, but at that time we were hearing it for the first time. These truths and fine points of knowledge opened our eyes and the lectures of other ulama which I had heard now seemed shallow. Dr. Iqbal was at that time sitting on the roof of the entrance of the mosque and was full of praise for this exposition of the Quran. Hazrat Mirza sahib stayed a few days in Sialkot and then went back. Many people in Sialkot took the pledge, among them Maulvi Mubarik Ali, the imam of our Sadar Mosque. This caused a great deal of trouble in the Sadar area.

In the meanwhile, Maulvi Muhammad Husain Batalvi arrived in Sialkot. He was a leading scholar of the Ahl-i-Hadith in the Punjab and was at the height of his fame for his knowledge and learning. His mission was to oppose Hazrat Mirza sahib. As I was an Ahl-i-Hadith follower, I had a special regard for him. I met him at a dinner in Sadar, and after this there was a lecture by him at the main mosque in Sadar which was disjointed and not at all enjoyable. However, he read out some extracts from a copy of [Hazrat Mirza sahib’s book] Izala Auham, and by taking the passages out of context and juxtaposing various passages together he gave a completely wrong impression to the audience. For instance, he emphasized to us that Mirza sahib had said that there is a verse in the Quran: “Surely We have revealed it near Qadian”. He also said that Mirza sahib applied to himself the prophecy mentioned in the verse of the Quran: “I (Jesus) give good news of a messenger after me whose name is Ahmad”, and did not apply it to the Holy Prophet Muhammad; that Mirza sahib says that the Quran is full of abusive words and that four hundred prophets lied, etc. etc. In short, this is the way he incited us against Hazrat Mirza sahib. Little did we know that such a reputed scholar was standing in a mosque uttering lies, and by misquoting passages was slandering Hazrat Mirza sahib. We were led astray by trusting the mullahs, and thus lost the distinction of being among the first followers of Hazrat Mirza sahib.

Thus after polluting the atmosphere of Sialkot, Maulvi Muhammad Husain Batalvi left. With him also went the spiritual peace I had found. The community of the Ahl-i-Hadith in Sialkot had become fragmented and the mosque of the Wahhabis almost desolate. A large portion of the Ahl-i-Hadith had become Ahmadi and had shifted to Hakim Hissam-ud-din’s Mosque. The few who were left shifted to an old royal mosque. Maulvi Muhammad Ibrahim of Sialkot, at that time a young man, was made imam of the mosque. I also went to say my prayers in that mosque. But his old-style, traditional khutbas could not attract someone who had heard the khutbas of Maulvi Abdul Karim. One Friday was more than enough to disenchant me, and I stopped going there.

Around this time God so ordained that I chanced to meet a Sufi of the Chishtiyya Sabiriyya order. Despite being of the Ahl-i-Hadith school of thought, I had always been interested in sufism, and in his company that interest was rekindled. I learnt from him all the recitals and incantations practised in the Chishtiyya Sabiriyya order. He once inquired as to my purpose in following these practices. I replied that I wished to become a saint. He said that I was the first person who had ever desired to learn this from him. Generally people used incantations for the purpose of attaining some worldly advantage. To cut a long story short, the constant recitation of the word “Allah” resulted in my heart frequently feeling moved and a state of ecstasy was regularly experienced and the thought of the name Allah remained in my mind constantly. One day I met an atheist who raised such objections that I lost my very faith. He said that my entire experience was just a product of my imagination. I went to my Sufi guide with those objections. He replied that a Sufi keeps away from debate or discussion. I said that in this world one cannot avoid encountering people who hold opposing opinions. What answer, then, would one give to such objections? He just replied that I should continue reciting the incantations. My faith had, however, been shaken, so how could I do the recitations? I tried but my heart was no longer in it. In those days mesmerism was the latest thing much talked about. My reading of books on this subject resulted in the loss of whatever little faith I still had. I was deeply agitated and the world seemed to be hell for me.

In the army garrison area of Sialkot, Maulvi Jalal-ud-din used to teach in the army school. He was a very righteous man and had become an Ahmadi. One day when I went to visit him he was inside having a wash. Outside on the bed the famous book by Hazrat Mirza sahib, Barahin Ahmadiyya, was lying open. As I sat on the bed my glance fell on the open page and I began reading it. What a writing it was! It was like a soothing balm for my wounded soul. The arguments for proving that the Quran had been revealed by God were so powerful and convincing that as I read on and on I felt as if a veil was being lifted from my eyes and my faith was being revived. In short, that day I once again felt that I was a Muslim. I was convinced that, whether I understood the personal claims of Hazrat Mirza sahib or not, if certainty in the truth of Islam is to be obtained the only way is through reading his books. This conviction grew further when in Lahore I heard the famous lecture of Hazrat Mirza sahib at the occasion of the Conference of Religions, which was later published as a book entitled The Teachings of Islam. Maulvi Abdul Karim’s delivery of the lecture had a magnificent glory of its own. The substance of the lecture was so lofty and full of the highest truths and deepest knowledge that the public were listening in a daze of wonder. The Muslims were so overjoyed that they were jumping up from their seats. As regards myself, I felt as if the truth and greatness of Islam was entering every fibre of my body.

On graduating from the Medical College, I went to East Africa. There I was always in the company of the late Dr. Rahmat Ali who was a very pious Ahmadi. I had the opportunity and time to study Hazrat Mirza sahib’s books and my faith in his veracity went on growing stronger. However, some influence of the ulama still remained upon me and their declarations of unbelief against Hazrat Mirza sahib prevented me from becoming an Ahmadi. On returning from Africa, I was assigned to the Zafarwal District of Sialkot on plague duty. I read much of the writings of Hazrat Mirza sahib both in criticism of other religions and about his own claims. The books A’ina Kamalat Islam and Ayyam-us-Sulh particularly made a deep impression on me. Around this time, an Ahl-i-Hadith maulvi became the imam of the mosque at a nearby village. This resulted in an altercation between the Hanafis and the Ahl-i-Hadith. The local Police Superintendent was a staunch Hanafi. He arrested the maulvi along with all his followers and instituted a case against them for bail. When I heard of this, the Ahl-i-Hadith in me was aroused. I took up their cause and went as far as the Deputy Commissioner of Sialkot, and got those poor fellows released. They were very thankful to me and I started to meet them.

When this maulvi realized that I was being influenced by Ahmadiyyat he gave me the book Saif-i-Chishtiyya’i by Pir Mahr Ali Shah and another book which was probably entitled Shams-ul-Badaya. I read these books, especially the arguments given in favour of the contention that Jesus was still bodily alive in heaven. On comparison with the arguments for the natural death of Jesus, the arguments for Jesus being alive appeared to me to be worthless. I flatly told the maulvi that the books that he had given me had only served to increase my belief in the veracity of Hazrat Mirza sahib. The maulvi was very annoyed with me, and that was the last I saw of him.

I was transferred to Shakargarh on plague duty. At a nearby village of the Pathans, an officer Munawwar Khan had been suspended for not assisting in the efforts against the plague. As I got to know him, he requested that I intercede for his reinstatement. He said:

“Previously whenever we were in difficulties we would ask the Mirza of Qadian to pray for us, and then by the grace of God our problem would be solved, but now he has claimed to be Jesus Christ the son of God. Our ulama have proclaimed him an unbeliever and therefore we have stopped going there.”

“Yes, I know him from childhood. He is a very righteous, godly and abstinent man whose prayers are answered by God. We have experience of his prayers; they work like an arrow going straight for its target. There is no doubt that he is a great saint. But you know that it is the saints who stumble. It appears that at some stage in the spiritual path Mirza sahib, like Mansur,⁷ slipped or went astray.”

I was particularly struck by what he said. I had the opportunity to frequently go on official duty to various areas of Gurdaspur District.⁸ I met Shaikh Nur Ahmad, a chief of Batala, and various other people who were not Ahmadis and were acquainted with Mirza sahib since childhood. Their replies to my inquiries regarding Mirza sahib convinced me that he was a righteous and saintly person. I was already satisfied with regards to his claims but I was still apprehensive about taking the pledge (bai‘at), for opposition to Ahmadiyyat knew no bounds.

My son Mumtaz Ahmad was at that time two years old. I was appointed in Shakargarh, District Gurdaspur, on plague duty, while my family was residing in Amritsar. Mumtaz Ahmad contracted typhoid fever so dangerous that his temperature would not go below 105° Fahrenheit day or night and sometimes rose even higher, and the signs and symptoms of typhoid fever became fully apparent. The best doctors of Amritsar were in agreement that the typhoid was so severe that, if the boy survived, the fever would not reduce in less than three or four weeks. I had taken one week’s leave from work. The child was unconscious all the time, lying like a corpse, and there appeared no hope of survival. On the 11th day of the illness my leave expired. The boy’s pulse was erratic and there was no change in his fever or unconscious condition. I was desperately worried and refused to return to duty. The elders in my family advised me not to take such a foolish step, as what was destined to happen would happen in any case, and I should not risk my employment. By coincidence, in those days Hazrat Mirza sahib’s book Barakat-ud-dua (The Blessings of Prayer) was in our house and my wife had read it. She said to me:

You will have to pass through Gurdaspur on the way back to Shakargarh. On the way is the town of Batala. From there if you go to Qadian and ask Hazrat Mirza sahib to pray for the child it is possible that God may answer. Mirza sahib in his book Barakat-ud-dua has written with great emphasis:

O you who say that ‘if prayer is effective then show it’, where are you? Run to me so that I show you that effect as clear as the sun.

On hearing these words from my wife, I immediately prepared to depart. As I was unfamiliar with the environs of Qadian, I requested an Ahmadi friend to accompany me. The train left Amritsar at 10 p.m. and we reached Batala at midnight. There we hired a horse cart to take us to Qadian. The road was in an extremely poor state of repair. After a rough and jerky ride we reached Qadian at two in the morning. The night was terribly dark and nothing was visible. There were no sign of lanterns in Qadian. It was the winter season, so the doors of the houses were closed. There was no sign of any human being. I thought about what Mirza sahib would be doing at this time? Would he be sleeping comfortably or be offering the tahajjud prayer (voluntary night prayer)? Anyway, I felt a desire to know what he was doing at this time. My Ahmadi friend led the way and I followed behind. In the darkness we could not make out anything, when unknowingly, my friend pressed against a door of Hazrat Mirza sahib’s house and it fell open with a jolt. Hazrat Mirza sahib was offering the tahajjud prayer. He closed his prayers with salam just at that time and after inquiring as to our purpose, he directed us to go upstairs to the Mubarik mosque. On arriving upstairs we found ourselves in a small mosque. There was a room adjoining the mosque, named bait-ul-fikr (the contemplation room). The entire mosque was filled with people offering the tahajjud prayer with great humbleness and devotion. In the room we found the late Khwaja Kamal-ud-din sleeping on a bed. He awoke on our arrival and offered us the bed. Thinking of the inconvenience to him, I refused, but he said that he was now going to offer the tahajjud prayers. So I lay down, and Khwaja sahib performed his ablutions and was soon engrossed in prayer. But I was terribly embarrassed lying and resting as people were praying with such humbleness and with overflowing tears that I was feeling ashamed of myself. But I was very tired so I fell asleep. At 4 a.m. the call was given for the morning prayers. Somebody woke me up and offered me water for performing ablutions. I had just performed my ablutions and offered the individual prayers (sunnah), when the late Maulvi Abdul Karim arrived. I was delighted to see him as he used to be imam of our Ahl-i-Hadith Mosque at Sialkot. He also met me with great warmth, saying: “At last you have come; yes, God did bring you”. After this I mentioned to him that my son was critically ill and I was requesting prayers for him. He said:

“Follow the example of Abraham, and for you too the call will come from heaven:

Just then Hazrat Mirza sahib came out. I felt as if an embodiment of light was standing in front of me. Maulvi Abdul Karim took me by the arm and introduced me to Hazrat Mirza sahib in these words:

I pray that God makes me truly worthy of these words and that I meet a good end. Hazrat Mirza sahib shook my hands with great warmth. As some people had spread the rumour that Mirza sahib suffered from leprosy and that his hands were covered by rash, I looked at his hands closely. In my own sinful hands, it appeared to me as if his hands, bathed in light, were like silver. Maulvi Abdul Karim only introduced me in the words mentioned above, and in my opinion there are no better words to introduce somebody to the Messiah appointed by God. I therefore myself related the details about me. We then offered the congregational prayers. I was standing shoulder to shoulder with Hazrat Mirza sahib and Maulvi Abdul Karim was leading the prayers. Praying behind him was nothing new for me as I had prayed behind him for long in Sialkot, but I had never before experienced the grandeur with which he now recited the Quran at Qadian. His recitation was now so perfectly eloquent, and it penetrated the heart so much that as I listened to it my heart melted and yearned. It is my belief this change was due to the blessing of the Messiah, for I had long heard Maulvi Abdul Karim’s recitation of the Quran; it had neither possessed such eloquence, nor this penetrating effect.

After the prayers Hazrat Mirza sahib went inside. Khalifa Rashid-ud-din had already asked me whether I would like to meet Hazrat Mirza sahib in the mosque or privately. I desired to meet him in private. Shortly thereafter, Hazrat Mirza sahib invited us inside. We entered a room in which some children were sleeping. Hazrat Mirza sahib was sitting on a bare, rope-woven bed, not covered by any soft bedding. On seeing me, he shifted towards the foot of the bed and invited me to sit towards the (more comfortable) head of the bed. Out of respect, I refused, but he took my hand and sat me down near the head. He himself remained at the rough side and my friend sat between us.

I asked to know of some spiritual devotion for the purification of the heart. He said:

“Just say the daily prayers with care and with understanding of the meaning of the words.”

I was quite moved by his answer. For, I had tried various incantations and recitals, but with no good result, except that my heart had got spiritually weaker and I had lost the strength to face the world. Furthermore, the way taught by the Holy Prophet Muhammad to his companions, for the purification of the heart, was the offering of these very daily prayers. So it was the method to be found in the Sunna of the Holy Prophet, these daily prayers, that the Promised Messiah taught for the purification of one’s heart. From this I realized how firmly he followed the Sunna of the Holy Prophet, and that he did not approve of any way that was a later addition in Islam (bid‘ah). Hazrat Mirza sahib spoke more on the purification of the heart. And what a speech! It felt as if a spiritual doctor, diagnosing the real disease, was applying the treatment. The answers to my weakness of faith and my doubts and qualms were coming in such a manner that I sometimes felt as if my heart was open in front of him and he was identifying the maladies in it and treating them. When he said that a sinful person is like a criminal whose arrest warrant has been issued, so at every step he is afraid, and every moment he is anxious that he is about to be captured, how then can a sinner have the tranquillity of heart which is granted to those who turn to God — these words caused me to tremble. I had heard plenty of sermons, but I don’t know what it was about these simple words that they were so effective as to penetrate my heart.

In the same connection, Hazrat Mirza sahib said that one should be ready to depart for the next world just as a long waiting traveller eagerly awaits a passage home. These words made such an impression upon me that worldly matters began to seem quite unimportant. The talk ended on the topic of the natural death of Jesus which was characteristic of Hazrat Mirza sahib. Hazrat Mirza sahib had such a great desire to wipe out the false doctrine that Jesus is alive that most of his talks would eventually turn to this topic. I was so engrossed in the talk that my boy’s illness had slipped my mind and indeed I was totally unmindful of any worldly matter. In the future too, I would feel the same — that is, after I had taken the pledge of Hazrat Mirza sahib, whenever I went into his company I would forget the world. I would feel too embarrassed to ask him to pray about any matter of the world, even hesitating to request his prayers in the case of illness of a near and dear one. I would think that to ask such a great man for prayer for any mundane matter is to devalue his status and worth. Anyhow, when Hazrat Mirza sahib ended his talk saying, “whatever doubts or objections arise in your mind, you can write to me or visit here in person to have them cleared and get satisfaction”, the uncertainty of life loomed before me. I realized that so much of my life had already passed searching for the truth and I remained deprived of the blessing of Ahmadiyyat. One cannot rely on life, and I might die in a state of spiritual ignorance. I said: “Sir, accept my pledge of allegiance, for how long will I go on stumbling like this”. He took my pledge and prayed for me.

When I was about to take my leave, I mentioned my son’s illness and requested Hazrat Mirza sahib to pray with special attention. He immediately raised his hands and prayed for a long time. After he had finished praying he gave me leave to depart. From there, I went to Hazrat Maulana Nur-ud-din, with whom I had old relations from my days of being a Wahhabi. He also spoke about prayer briefly. From there I departed straight for Gurdaspur. At the railway station I met my boss who was an English Doctor. I told him that my child was very sick and I needed leave. He asked me for the present to go to Shakargarh, but when he would return from Pathankot in two days’ time I could get leave for even ten days. I immediately went to Shakargarh. On the third day I received a letter that the temperature had subsided and the child was completely well. As I had already applied for leave, I went to Amritsar and learnt that, on the morning I had got Hazrat Mirza sahib to pray, the condition of the child was very critical. By nightfall everyone was despondent. Twelve days had elapsed since the onset of the fever. But when the temperature was taken late night it was found to be normal. The elders of the family, on hearing of this, said that the thermometer had not been placed properly. However, after taking the temperature several times and finding it normal, the doctor treating the child was informed. He was a highly capable doctor. He said:

“Have you gone out of your minds? This type of intense typhoid fever never subsides in twelve days, and suddenly as well! This is all an error of not placing the thermometer correctly.”

He came himself and took the temperature again and again, and felt the pulse. He was astonished. He said:

“This is some special blessing of God. I can’t understand it. I have never come across such a case — a child in such a bad and weak state and then the sudden appearance of good health. This is a Messianic miracle that a dead person has been brought to life.”

And indeed it was the grace of God and a miracle of a Messiah. How truly does Hazrat Mirza sahib say (in a poetic verse about the qualities of the exalted man who is chosen and sent by God):

“You can wrack your brains a thousand times and still not solve your problem,

By the grace of God, despite intense opposition, gradually my entire family and almost all my friends and close relations became Ahmadi. And this is all the favour of God.

As for myself, whenever I would be sitting in the company of Hazrat Mirza sahib, and my gaze would be fixed upon his radiant face, my heart would become filled with thanks to Almighty Allah for His grace and for my good fortune, that the man whom so many great saints in Muslim history were yearning to meet but they passed away, a sinner like me was graced with meeting him and taking his pledge! This was indeed a great favour of God.

[1] A school of thought that held the Hadith (reported sayings and actions) of Prophet Muhammad to be supreme over the teachings of the traditional schools of jurisprudence.

[2] A puritanical movement originating in Saudi Arabia, to which the Ahl-i-Hadith were doctrinally similar in many points.

[3] These are the minor ritual differences of the Ahl-i-Hadith and Hanafis in performing the congregational prayer.

[4] The Quran, 3:55. This verse was generally understood as meaning: “O Jesus, I will take you and raise you to Me”.

[5] The fourteenth century of the Muslim calendar began in 1883.

[6] Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad had shown the meaning of this verse to be: “O Jesus, I will cause you to die and exalt you in My presence”.

[7] Mansur bin Hallaj, the famous mystic who proclaimed ‘ana-l Haq’ (I am the truth).

[8] The village of Qadian was located in this District.