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PART III: THE PRACTICES OF ISLAM

11. Prayer

Section 1: The Value of Prayer

Importance of prayer in Islam

The fundamental religious duties recognized by Islam for the individual are: prayer, charity, fasting and pilgrimage. Among these, prayer un­doubtedly occupies the most important position, and is given the greatest prominence in the Holy Quran, charity coming next to it. It was the first duty enjoined on the Holy Prophet, and though prayer and charity are often mentioned together in the Holy Quran, prayer always takes prece­dence. The keeping up of prayer is the frequently repeated in­junction of the Quran and it has also been generally recognized as the first and foremost duty of a Muslim.

There are several reasons why prayer has been given this importance. It is really the first step in the onward progress of man, and yet it is also his highest spiritual ascent (mi‘rāj). Prayer keeps man away from evil; it helps him to realize the Divine in him, and that realization not only urges him to do disinterested service for humanity but also makes him attain the highest degree of moral and spiritual perfection. Prayer is also the means of levelling all differences of rank, colour and nationality, and the means of bringing about a cohesion and unity among people which is the necessary basis of a living civilization.

Self-development through prayer

What prayer really aims at is stated in the very beginning of the Quran. There we are told that a Muslim, who would tread the road to self-development, must accept certain principles and carry out certain duties:

“This Book, in which there is no doubt, is a guide to those who keep their duty, who believe in the Unseen and keep up prayer and spend [on good works] out of what We have given them, and who believe in what has been revealed to you [O Prophet] and what was revealed before you, and of the Hereafter they are sure. These are on a right course from their Lord and these it is that are successful (mufli­ḥūn).” 2:2–5

The word falāḥ means ‘success’, and from it mufliḥūn means ‘those who are successful’. This word, whether relat­ing to this life or to the next, carries with it the idea of the complete develop­ment of the inner faculties of man, and the achievement of both material and moral greatness; what, in other words, may be called the full self-develop­ment of man. This self-development is reach­ed, according to the Quran, by the acceptance of three principles, the existence of God, His revealing Him­self to man, and the Hereafter; and by the exercise of two duties, the keeping up of prayer, or seeking communion with God, and the spending of one’s wealth for others or the service of humanity. The place of prayer in the self-development of man is given such a prominence in Islam that in the call to prayer the words “come to prayer” are immediately followed by the words “come to success (falāḥ)”, showing that self-develop­ment is attained through prayer. On another occasion, using the same word, the Quran says clearly:

“Successful (aflaḥa) indeed are the believers, who are humble in their prayers”. — 23:1–2

Prayer as the means of realizing the Divine in man

Belief in God is the fundamental principle of every religion; neverthe­less the object of religion is not simply to preach the doctrine of the exis­tence of God as a theory; it goes far beyond that. Religion seeks to instil the conviction that God is a living force in the life of man; and prayer is the means by which it is sought to achieve this great end. The real con­viction that God is comes to man, not by the belief that there is a God in the outer world, but by the realization of the Divine within himself; and that this realization is attained through prayer is made clear by what is stated in the beginning of the Quran, as quoted above. The three req­uisites of a true Muslim are there given in their natural order. The first is a belief in the Unseen, which means a belief in God, the great Unseen Who cannot be perceived by the physical eye of man. The second, which follows immediately the belief in the Unseen, is the keeping up of prayer, thus showing that belief in the Unseen is turned into a certainty of the Divine existence, a realization of the Divine within man, by means of prayer; and it is with reference to this realization that we are told, a little further on:

“And seek assistance through patience and prayer, and this is hard except for the humble, who know that they will meet their Lord and that to Him they will return.” — 2: 45–46

The third requisite, spend­ing out of what God has given, is the natural sequel of the second, and shows that the realization of the Divine in man leads to the service of humanity. In one of the earliest revealed chapters of the Quran, it is stated that prayer is useless unless it leads to the service of humanity:

“So woe to the praying ones, who are unmindful of their prayer, who do good to be seen, and refrain from acts of kindness.” — 107:4–7

Prayer, a means of attaining to moral greatness

Prayer to God is the natural sequel of the acceptance, in theory, of the existence of God. The aspiration to rise to moral greatness is implanted in human nature more deeply than even the aspiration to rise to material greatness; but the only way in which the former can be realized is to be in touch with the All-Pervading Spirit, the fountain-head of puri­ty and the source of the highest morality. “All the perfect attributes are Allah’s”, says the Quran (7:180). But man stands in need of perfect attributes as well for there is implanted in him the unquenchable desire to rise higher and higher. How can he do so except by being in touch with the Being that possesses the perfect attributes, the Being that is free from all defects? And prayer is but an attempt to be in touch with Him. And the only way to become imbued with Divine morals is to get in touch with the Divine Spirit, to be drawn away from all worldly hindrances for a while, and to drink deep at that source, which is prayer to God. In many sayings of the Holy Prophet, prayer is spoken of as munājāt or confidential relations with the Lord.1 In one it is related that man should pray to God as if he were seeing Him.2 Such descriptions of prayer show its real nature to be that of being in actual intercourse with the Divine Being and intercourse means nothing but becoming imbued with Divine morals.

Prayer as the means of purification of heart

The right development of human faculties depends upon the purifica­tion of man’s inner self and the suppression of evil tendencies. Referring to the soul, the Holy Quran says:

“He is indeed successful who purifies it.” —91:9

Prayer is spoken of as a means of purification for the heart:

“Recite what has been revealed to you of the Book and keep up prayer. Surely prayer keeps one away from in­decency and evil.” — 29:45

“And keep up prayer at the two ends of the day and in the first hours of the night. Surely good deeds take away evil deeds.” — 11:114

In a hadith, the saying of prayers is compared to washing one­self in a river:

“Abu Hurairah says that he heard the Prophet say: If one of you has a river at his door in which he washes himself five times a day, what do you think? Would it leave any dirt on him? The Compan­ions said: It would not leave any dirt on him [and he would be perfectly clean]. The Prophet said: This is an example of the five prayers, with which Allah blots off all the evils of a man.” 3

There are many other Hadith reports in which it is stated that prayer is a means of suppressing the evil tendencies of man. The reason is plain. In the Quran, “the remembrance of Allah” is stated to be the object of keeping up pray­er (20:14), while it is also stated that “the remembrance of Allah is the greatest” restraint upon sin (29:45). A law generally requires a sanction behind it, and behind all Divine laws which relate to the development of man and to his moral betterment, the only sanction is a belief in the great Author of those laws. The more often, there­fore, a person reverts to prayer, to that state in which, disengaging himself from all worldly attractions, he feels the Divine presence as an actual fact, the grea­ter is his certainty about the existence of God, and the greater the restraint upon the tendency to break that law. Prayer, thus, by check­ing the evil tendencies of man, purifies his heart of all evil, and sets him on the right road to the development of his inner faculties.

Unification of the human race through Divine service

The service of prayer is divided into two parts, one to be said in pri­vate and the other to be performed in congregation, preferably in a mosque. While the private prayer is meant simply for the development of the in­ner self of man, the public one has other ends as well in view, ends, in­deed, that make the Islamic prayer a mighty force in the unification of the human race. In the first place, this gathering of all people living in the same vicinity five times daily in the mosque is a help to the establish­ment of healthy social relations. In the daily prayer services these rela­tions are limited to a narrow circle, i.e., only to members of the same neigh­bourhood, but the circle becomes wider in the weekly Friday serv­ice which gathers together all Muslim members of a particular locality, and still wider in the two great ‘Īd gatherings.

Far more important than this, however, is the levelling of social differences brought about by means of congregational prayer. Once within the doors of the mosque, every Muslim finds himself in an atmosphere of equality and love. Before their Maker they all stand shoulder to shoulder, the ruler along with his poorest subject, the rich with the beggar, the white man with the black. Differences of rank, wealth and colour vanish within the mosque, and an atmosphere of brotherhood, equality and love, totally differing from the outside world, prevails within the holy precincts. Man has to work amidst inequalities, amidst strife and struggle, amidst scenes of hatred and enmity, and yet he is drawn out of these five times a day, and made to realize that equality, fraternity and love are the real sources of human happiness. The time spent on prayer is not, therefore, wasted even from the point of view of active humanitarianism; on the contrary, the best use of it is made in learning those great lessons which make life worth living.

Regulation of prayer

Prayer in Islam thus not only enables man to realize the Divine in him, not only makes him drink deep at the fountain of Divine morals, purifies his heart and sets him on the right road to the development of human faculties; but it goes a step further and, levelling all differences, brings about love, concord and a true union of humanity. This last ob­ject cannot be achieved without a regularly ins­tituted form of prayer, so that everyone should gather together in mosques at the stated times and should stand up reverently, bow down and prostrate them­selves before their great Maker as one. But even apart from that consider­ation, the grand idea of holding communion with God or realizing the Divine within man, which is so essential to the moral elevation of man, could not have been kept alive unless there was an out­ward form to which all people should try to conform.

In the first place, no idea can live unless there is an institution to keep it alive. Secondly, the masses in any community, even though it may be educated, can be awakened to the recognition of a truth only through some outward form, which reminds them of the underlying idea. And thirdly, there can be no uniformity without a form, and without uniformity the community or nation, as a whole, cannot make any progress, the end in view being the moral elevation of the community as a whole and not the elevation of par­ticular individuals.

It must be added that prayer in Islam is not so rigid as it is generally thought to be. It is true that all Muslims are required to assemble at particular times in the mosques, and to follow the lead of the Imām, but every prayer is divided into two parts, one to be performed in con­gregation, the other alone. Even in the congregational part there is ample scope for the individual to give expression to the soul’s sincerest desire before its Maker, and for an outpouring of the true sentiments of the heart. But in the private part of the pra­yer, it is not only left to the individual to select the portions of the Quran which he likes, but he can also give vent to his own feelings by making any supplications that he likes and in any language that he chooses, in any of the four postures, the posture of standing, bowing, prostration and sitting.

Times of prayer

In Islam there is no Sabbath or a day set apart for worship. Prayer is made a part of the everyday affairs of man. There is a prayer in the morning before sunrise upon rising from bed, another just after midday, a third in the afternoon, a fourth at sunset, and a fifth before going to bed. Prayer is thus the first daily act of a Muslim and it is also his last act of the day, and between these two there are other prayers during hours of business or recreation. Thus Islam requires that, in all the varying con­ditions through which man has to pass, his spirit should be in touch with the Divine Spirit. Even when busiest, he should still be able to disengage himself from all worldly occupations for a short while and resort to pray­er. The object in view in this arrangement is clearly that man should feel the Divine presence under all conditions, so that while he is doing his work, God should still be nearest to his heart. Such an arrangement enhan­ces the value of prayer as a moral force in the transaction of everyday affairs.

Mode of worship

The Islamic mode of worship is calculated to concentrate attention on one object, the realization of the Divine presence. The ablution preced­ing prayer, the reverential attitude in standing, the bowing down, the kneel­ing with the forehead placed on the ground, and the reverent sitting posture — all help the mind to realize the Divine presence as a fact; and the wor­shipper, as it were, finds his heart’s joy in doing honour to the Great Master, not only with his tongue but with his whole body, adopting a rever­ent attitude. There is not the least doubt that the spirit of humility in man finds particular expression in the reverential postures which must be adopt­ed in prayer. The whole prayer is a most solemn and serious affair dur­ing which the worshipper does not turn his attention to anything else, nor does he indulge in any movement which should distract his attention or disturb his prayerful attitude. The prayer is thus an undisturbed medita­tion on the Divine, and it is for this reason that in Islam it is not accom­panied with music but by recitations from the Quran speaking of Divine love, mercy, power and knowledge.

In cases of sickness, or when one is on a journey, the worshipper is permitted to say his prayers in any posture which he finds convenient. In such a case he is willing to humble himself in any position, but since his bodily condition does not allow him to assume the prescribed posture, a departure from regular procedure in that case does not affect the sincerity of him who prays or the efficacy of his prayer.

Language of prayer

Naturally a person would like to unfold his heart before his Maker by praying in the language in which he can most readily express his feel­ings, and this is fully recognized in Islam. Not only in private prayer but in the course of the public service as well, the worshipper is at liberty to pray to God in his own tongue, after or during the recitation of por­tions of the Holy Quran in a standing posture, or after utterance of words of Divine glory in that of bowing down or prostration. In the public service such prayers would undoubtedly be limited since the worshipper must follow the imam, but in the private portion they may be of any length.

The question, however, assumes a different aspect when the public service itself is considered, for, unless the public service is conducted in a language which is common to all Muslims, there must again be a failure in achieving the great end for which prayer is instituted. As already stated, the unification of Muslims through prayer is as much an end and object of prayer as to bring man into communion with God. It is prayer that daily gathers together persons of different callings and differ­ent ranks and positions in society, under one roof, and on a perfect status of equality, and these homogeneous units are again united by the more extensive gathering for the Friday prayers, or the still larger assemblies at ‘Īd pra­y­ers, culminating in that mighty assemblage at Makkah of all nations and all races on the most perfect status of equality. Now all these various gatherings are expressly for Divine worship, and if there were a babel of languages prevailing in these gatherings, the object of unification of the human race through Divine service — an idea unique to Islam — would fail altogether. The bond of a common language is one of the greatest factors towards unifi­ca­tion, and this bond Islam has established by the use of a common language at the Divine service. This language, it is evident, could be none other than Arabic, the language of the Quran.

Some people think that a service held in any other language than that of the congregation will not fulfil the purpose of worship. In the first place, the Islamic prayer does not consist of mere words of praise of the Divine glory and majesty, or the mere expression, in words, of the inner feelings of the heart. There is also the attitude of mind, the inner feeling itself, of which the words are meant to be an expression. Now this attitude of mind is produced, in the first place, by the atmosphere about the worshipper and by the particular postures of reverence which he adopts. The mood, more than words, generates a true spirit of humili­ty, and the first condition of a prayerful mind is humility, as the Quran itself lays down: “Successful indeed are the believers, who are humble in their prayers” (23:1–2).

If there is a person who takes part in a public service without understanding a word of Arabic, it would still be en­tirely wrong to say that prayer does not benefit him, for there are the move­ments of his body, the raising of the hands to the ears, the standing up with folded hands, the bowing down, the placing of the forehead on the ground, the sitting down in a particular attitude of reverence, which all go a long way towards producing in him humility and consciousness of the Divine presence. In fact, his whole self is expressive of what the words convey. It will indeed be highly more beneficial if he understands the spoken language also, but it is absurd to say that the language of move­ments has no meaning for him.

As regards the language of words, the most often repeated expressions and the seven short sentences of the opening chap­ter of the Quran, called al-Fātiḥah, can be learnt, along with their meanings, in a short time and with very little effort. Even if the Divine service were held in one’s own language, still he would have to spend some time in learning it, and the learning of the significance of the Arabic words would only require a little additional time. Keeping in view the grand object of unifying the human race through Divine serv­ice, the time thus spent would be well worthwhile.

There are two other considerations which make it necessary to main­tain the Arabic language in Divine service. Firstly, the Holy Quran, parts of which are recited in the service, was revealed in the Arabic language, and a translation can never fully express the ideas of the original. And when the original is the word of God, and the ideas expressed are those relating to God’s majesty and glory, it is still more difficult to convey the full significance in a translation. Secondly, there is a music in the original which no translation can possibly render. The music of the Quran is not only in its rhythm but also in its diction, and the recitation of the Quran serves the purpose of communicat­ing grand and beautiful ideas to the accompaniment of music.

Prayer as index of Muslim mentality — Al-Fātiḥah

The opening chapter of the Holy Quran, the Fātiḥah, is the most essential part of the Islamic prayer, being the only portion of the Quran which must be repeated in every rak‘ah of a prayer. It is the guiding principle of a Muslim’s life and a true index of his mentality. The main principles underlying the Fātiḥah may be considered briefly here.

These are, firstly, the desire to give praise to the Divine Being un­der all circumstances, for the chapter opens with the words “All praise is due to Allah”. The Muslim has to come to prayer five times a day whatever the circumstances may be. There may be occasions when he is in distress, has suffered a reverse or a defeat, has a friend or near rela­tive in distress, when someone very dear to him has just passed away and he is under the burden of a great bereavement, yet in all these condi­tions he is required to give praise to God Who brings about all these con­ditions, just as he would do had he received a blessing or some great benefit from God. The attitude of mind thus produced is to live in perfect peace with one’s environment, neither to be carried away by joy, nor give way to dejection or depression. It is an attitude of mind which keeps one steadfast in pleasure as well as pain, in joy as well as sorrow.

The second and third main ideas which determine a Muslim’s mental attitude towards things are contained in the words Rabb al- ‘ālamīn (“Lord of the worlds”), the Nourisher unto perfection of all the worlds or all the nations. This attrib­ute of God brings to man the comfort of knowing that whatever may happen to him, whether he receives a blessing or faces disaster, he must still be sure that he is being led on to perfection through these different stages. The addition of the words al-‘ālamīn, all worlds or all nations, opens up his mind and widens the sphere of his love and sympathy not only towards all human beings, to whatever nation or creed they may belong, but also to the whole of God’s creation. The person who recognizes that God is the Nourisher unto perfection of all human beings cannot bear hatred towards them. He must recognize, in fact, that God is much more to all people than is a father to his sons.

The fourth main idea is carried in the words Raḥmān and Raḥīm. God is “Beneficent” and “Merciful” — Loving. He has provided man with everything necessary for his development, physical as well as moral and spiritual; but still that development depends on the right use of outward things as well as of the inner faculties which are meant for this object. The choice is man’s whether he takes advantage of those means and reaches the goal, or rejects or ignores them and suffers the evil consequences thereof.

The fifth and sixth great ideas contained in the Fātiḥah are those con­veyed in the words Māliki yaum-id-dīn or Master of the Day of Recompense or Requi­tal. God is here called the Mālik or the Master, and not Malik or King. The two words are almost alike; but there is this vast difference between a Mālik and a Malik, that the latter is bound to give to each what he deserves, but the former may, if he likes, forgive an offender altogether. There are some religions that lay so much stress on Divine justice that they refuse to recognize a God who can forgive offenders without having some compensation. Such a narrow view of Divine justice has a cor­responding effect on man’s morals. The word Mālik rejects this idea, and shows God to be a Master, Who can forgive if He likes, however great the offence may be. The addition of the words yaum al-dīn, the Day of Requital, is by way of reminder that man must face the conse­quence of his own deeds. There is no deed, good or bad, that is without a consequence, and if these consequences are not seen in this life, there is still a Day of Requital, even after death.

The seventh idea is contained in the words iyyā-ka na‘budu (“You do we serve”), the idea of rendering obedience to God with entire submission. This is meant to create in man the mentality of obedience to the Divine commandments, even when these are opposed to the commandments of some temporal authority or to his own wishes. These words also give man the strength to carry out the Divine commandments.

The eighth idea is contained in the words iyyā-ka nasta‘īn (“You do we beseech for help”). The mental attitude which it is sought to create by these words is that of entire dependence on God and never despairing of the attainment of an object, for even if outward means have failed, there is God, the Controller of all means, Whose help will not fail the one who depends on Him.

The ninth idea is contained in the words ihdi-nā: “Guide us” (on the right path). This signifies the soul’s inner desire — prayer being nothing but the expression of the soul’s in­most desire — of being led on and on to the goal, such being the sig­nificance of hidāyah (guidance). These words also show that the mentality of being content to live in perfect peace with one’s environment is not a negation of action. The Muslim attitude towards the world comprises both the desire to remain in peace with his environment, and the desire to move on and on so as to reach the great goal. He gives praise to God at every step, yet his is not a stationary condition; he is not the slave of his environment, but forever struggling and striving to master it.

The tenth idea ruling the Muslim mentality, as disclosed in the Fātiḥah (“the path of those upon whom You have bestowed favours”) is the longing to walk in the footsteps of those who have received Divine blessings of any kind, temporal or spiritual, and the desire to be able to avoid the errors of those who have been the objects of Divine displeasure or those who have gone astray (“not those upon whom wrath is brought down, nor those who go astray”). The latter are the followers of the two extremes, while those who have received the Divine favours are those who keep to the middle path — which is the straight path.

With these ten ideas ruling the mind — and this is what is aimed at by the frequent repetition of the Fātiḥah in prayer — the Muslim is armed with the best weapons both for happiness and success.

Prayer, an incentive to action

Prayer to God does not mean that one has simply to entreat the Divine Being to grant him this or that favour and do nothing himself towards attaining it. Prayer is, in fact, a search for means and is thus an incentive to action. The central idea of the Fātiḥah, as already shown, is one of action or being led on to action, for here the supplicator does not ask for certain favours but only to be guided on the right path. The prayer is: guide us on the right path, or, as shown with reference to the meaning of hidāyah (guidance), lead on to the goal by keeping us on the right path. Prayer is thus only the means of leading a Muslim onwards and discovering the path by walking whereon he may attain the goal. It is a mistake to suppose that prayer for any object negatives the adoption of human means to gain it. Elsewhere in the Quran the acceptance of prayer is spoken of as rewarding men and women for the hard work they have done:

“So their Lord accepted their prayer, [saying] I will not let the work of any wor­ker among you to be lost, whether male or female, each of you is as the other.” — 3:195

The rule has been laid down in the Quran in several places that no end can be gained without making a hard struggle for it, for example:

“And that man can have nothing but what he strives for, and that his striving will soon be seen, then he will be rewarded for it with the fullest reward.” 4 — 53:39–41

It may however be asked, what is the need for prayer if man must work for an end and avail himself of the means to gain it? Here, again, is a misconception as to the capabilities of man. It often hap­pens that, despite the hardest struggle, a person is unable to gain an end, and finds himself quite helpless. In such a case prayer is a help, a source of strength, to the worker. He does not lose heart nor does he despair, because he believes that, though the means at his disposal have failed, though all around there are difficulties and darkness, though his own strength is failing, yet there is a Higher Power with Whom nothing is impossible, Who can still bring a ray of light to dispel the darkness and Who remains a perpetual source of strength for him in his helpless­ness, and that by praying to Him he can still achieve what seems other­wise quite unattainable. That is the function of prayer, and it is thus one of the means to gain an end when all other means have failed, and a source of strength to a person at all times, but especially in moments of utter weak­ness and despair.

That such is the true function of prayer, and that it is only a source of greater energy and greater strength to enable man to face difficulties and achieve an end, is shown by the early history of Islam. The Holy Prophet Muhammad and his Companions were undoubtedly the greatest believers in prayer — they are spoken of in the Quran as spending two-thirds of the night, half the night or one-third of the night in prayer5 — and yet this was the very band of men whose love for work knew no bounds, whose energy was inexhaustible and who faced extreme difficulties with an iron determination. Those who, in ten years, with the scanti­est of resources, conquered two of the most powerful empires of the world, cannot be said to have been idle and inefficient. Prayer, in fact, trans­formed the neglected race of the Arabs into the most distinguished nation, turning an idle and inefficient people into the most zealous and untiring workers for the progress of humanity, in all phases of its advancement.

Section 2: The Mosque

No consecration is necessary

The Arabic word for mosque is masjid, which means ‘a place where one pros­trates oneself,’ or ‘a place of worship’. It should be borne in mind, in the first place, that prayer can be performed any­where. No particularly consecrated place is necessary for the holding of the Divine service. To this effect there is an express saying of the Holy Prophet, who, speaking of some of his distinctions, is reported to have said:

“The whole of the earth has been made a mosque for me.”6

A Muslim may, there­fore, say his prayers anywhere he likes. The mere fact that he does so elsewhere than in a mosque detracts in no way from the efficacy of the prayer; nor does a building when constructed for the express purpose of prayer stand in need of consecration. All that is required is that the builder should declare his intention to have that building used as a place of prayer.

The mosque as a religious centre

In spite of what has been stated above, the mosque plays a more important part in Islam than does any other house of worship in any other religion. All religious buildings are resorted to generally once a week, but the mosque is visited five times a day for the remembrance of God’s name. The whole atmosphere of the mosque is charged with the electricity of the Divine name. There is the call to prayer five times a day; there is the individual service, carried on in silence, but with God’s name on the lips of every individual worshipper; there is the public service in which the Imam recites aloud portions of the Quran, that tell of Divine gran­deur and glory, with the refrain of Allāhu Akbar repeated at every change of movement; and when the prayer is finished, there is again a chorus of voices speaking of Divine greatness, making the mosque echo and re-echo with the remembrance of God. It is true that God does not dwell in the mosque, but surely one feels His presence there.

A training ground of equality

Being a meeting-place of Muslims five times daily, the mosque serves as a training ground where the doctrine of the equality and fraternity of mankind is put into practical working. The mosque enables Muslims to meet five times a day, on terms of perfect equality and in a spirit of true brotherhood, all standing in a row before their great Maker, knowing no difference of colour or rank, all following the lead of one man. All differences and distinctions are, for the time be­ing, obliterated. Without the mosque, the mere teaching of the brother­hood of man would have remained a dead letter as it is in so many other religions.

The mosque as a national centre

Besides being its religious centre, the mosque is also the cultural centre of the Muslim community. Here the Muslim community is educated on all questions of its welfare. The Friday sermon is a regu­lar weekly lec­ture on all such questions, but, besides that, when­ever in the time of the Holy Prophet and his early successors it became necessary to inform the Muslim community on any matter of importance, a sermon or a lecture was delivered in the mosque. It was the centre of all kinds of Muslim activities. Here all im­portant national questions were settled. Deputations from Muslim as well as non-Muslim tribes were received in the mosque, and some of the more important deputations were also lodged there, as in the case of the famous Christian deputation from Najrān, and the deputation of Thaqīf, a polytheist tribe; and for this pur­pose tents were set up in the yard of the mosque.

Indeed, once on the occasion of a festival, the Prophet even allowed certain Abyssinians to give a display with shield and lance in the mosque.7 Hassan ibn Thabit used to recite in the mos­que his verses in defence of the Prophet against the abuse of his enemies.8 Juridical affairs were also settled in the mosque,9 and it was used in a number of other ways.10 The mosque was thus not only the spiri­tual centre of the Muslims but also their political, educational and social centre — in fact, their national centre.

Respect for mosques

The fact, however, that the mosque may be used for other objects than the saying of prayer, does not in any way detract from its sacred charac­ter. It is primarily a place for Divine worship and must be treated as such. Nor are any proceedings allowed in the mosque, except such as related to the welfare of the Muslim community or have a national importance. The carrying on of any business or trade in the mosque is expressly for­bidden.11 Due respect must be shown to the house of God; thus even the raising of loud voices is denounced,12 and spit­ting is expressly prohibited.13 Saying prayers, with shoes on, is permitted14 but the shoes must be clean and not dirty. The general practice is, however, to remove one’s shoes at the door of the mosque as a mark of respect to the mosque and to ensure cleanliness. Keeping the mosque clean and neat is an act of great merit.15

Building of the mosque

The only requirement of the law of Islam regarding the building of a mosque is that it should face the Ka‘bah, the Sacred Mosque of Makkah. According to the Holy Quran, the Ka‘bah was the first house for the worship of God that was ever built on this earth:

“Certainly the first house appointed for mankind is the one at Bakkah,16 blessed and a guidance for nations.” — 3:96

The Ka‘bah, being thus the first mosque on earth, all mosques are built to face it. This practice is based on an ex­press injunction contained in the Quran:

“And from whatsoever place you come forth, turn your face towards the Sacred Mosque. And wherever you are, turn your faces towards it…” — 2:150

The underlying purpose is stated just prior to this:

“And everyone has a goal to which he turns himself, so vie with one another in good works. Wherever you are, Allah will bring you all together.” — 2:148

The bringing of all together clearly means the mak­ing of all as one people, so that beneath the ostensible unity of direction lies the real unity of purpose. Just as they have all one centre to turn to, they must set one goal before themselves. Thus the unity of the Qiblah, the direction of prayer, among Muslims stands for their unity of purpose, and forms the basis on which rests the brotherhood of Islam. Hence the Holy Prophet’s saying:

“Do not call those who follow your Qiblah (ahl Qiblah) disbelievers (kafir).” 17

Hadith recommends that the mosque should be as simple as possible. All adorn­ments are generally avoided, in accordance with a saying of the Holy Prophet:

“I have not been commanded to raise the mosques high.”18

According to another hadith, the Holy Prophet is reported to have said:

“The hour of doom (al-sā‘ah) will not come till people vie with one another in [the build­ing of] mosques.” 19

As shown earlier (see page here), al-sā‘ah in this case means the time of downfall of a nation.

The mosque built by the Holy Prophet himself at Madinah, called the Prophet’s Mosque, was a simple structure in a vast courtyard in which tents could be pitched in time of need. The build­ing was made of bricks baked in the sun, and the roofed portion, resting on columns consisting of the stems of palm-trees, was covered with palm-leaves and clay. The great mosques of Islam erected in the time of Umar were all simple structures like the Prophet’s Mosque at Madinah, built either of reeds or bricks baked in the sun, with vast courtyards, large enough to accommodate congregations of even 40,000, the floors being generally strewn with pebbles. The custom of building mosques with domes and having one or more minarets grew up later, but even these are, notwithstanding their grandeur, monuments of simplicity, their chief adorn­ment being the writing on theirs walls, in mosaic, of verses from the Quran.

A name may be given to any mosque, either that of the founder or of the people who resort to it, or any other name. In later times, Muslims be­longing to different sects had their own mos­ques, the Ka‘bah, the Central Mosque, gathering all together at the time of the pilgrimage. But when a mosque has once been built it is open to Muslims of all persuasions and no one has the right to prohibit Muslims of a certain persuasion or sect from entering it. This is a point on which the Quran contains a clear in­junction:

“And who is more unjust than he who prevents [people from entering] the mosques of Allah, from His name being remembered in them, and strives to ruin them?”

— 2:114

Admission of women to mosques

There was no question in the Holy Prophet’s time as to whether women may go to mosques. Women freely took part in religious services. There is indeed a hadith which tells us that on a cer­tain night the Holy Prophet was very late in coming out to lead the night pray­ers, when the people had assembled in the mosque; and he came only on hearing Umar call out: “The women and the children are going to sleep”.20 This shows that women were in the mosque even at such a late hour. According to another hadith narrated by Aishah, women used to be present at the morning prayer, which was said at an hour so early that they returned to their houses while it was still dark.21 Yet another hadith shows that even women who had children to suckle would come to the mosque, and that when the Prophet heard a baby crying, he would shorten his prayer lest the mother should feel inconvenienced;22 while in one hadith it is stated that when the Holy Prophet had finished his prayers, he used to stay a little and did not rise until the women had left the mosque.23 All these Hadith reports afford overwhelming evidence of the fact that women, just in the same way as men, used to frequent the mosques and that there was not the least restriction in this matter.

There are other reports which show that the Holy Prophet had given orders not to prohibit women from going to the mosque. For instance, there is one which quotes the Holy Prophet as say­ing:

“Do not prohibit the handmaids of Allah from going to the mosques of Allah.” 24

According to another, the Holy Prophet is reported to have said that if a woman wanted to go to the mosque at night she should not be prohibited from doing so.25 The words of a third hadith are more general:

“When the wife of one of you asks per­mission to go out, she should not be prohibited from doing so.” 26

There was an express injunction that on the occasion of the ‘Īd festival women should go out to the place where prayers were said; women in a state of menstruation were also to be present, though they would not join the prayers.27

The practice for women to be present in the mosques at the time of prayer seems to have continued long enough after the Holy Prophet’s time. Within the mosque they were not separated from men by any screen or curtain; only they formed into a line behind the men;28 and though they were covered decently with an over-garment, they did not wear a veil. On the occasion of the great gather­ing of the pilgrimage (ḥajj), a woman is expressly forbidden to wear a veil.29 Many other reports show that women formed them­selves into a back row and that the men retained their seats until they had gone out of the mosque.30 This practice seems to have existed for a very long time. Thus we read of women calling out Allāhu Akbar along with men in the mosque during the three days following ‘Īd al-Aḍḥā as late as the time of Umar ibn Abdul Aziz, the Umayyad Caliph who ruled about the end of the first century.31 In the year 256 A.H., the Governor of Makkah is said to have tied ropes between the columns to make a separate place for women.32 Later on, the practice grew up of erecting a wood­en barrier in the mosque to form a separate enclosure for women, but by and by women were altogether shut out from mosques.

Another question connected with this subject relates to the ent­rance of women into mosques during their menstruation. It must be borne in mind, in the first place, that in Islam a state of mens­truation is not looked upon as a state of impurity, as in many other religions. All that the Holy Quran says about menstruation is that conjugal relations should be discontinued during the state of menstruation.33 According to Hadith, a woman is ex­empted from saying her prayers, or keeping the fast, as long as menstru­ation lasts. As regards pilgrimage, she may perform all obligations except making the circuits of the Ka‘bah (ṭawāf), but there is no idea of impurity attaching to her in this condition. There is a very large number of reports showing that all kinds of social relations with women in this condition were permitted, that the husband and wife could occupy the same bed, that the Holy Prophet used to recite the Quran when sitting in close con­tact with his wife who had her courses on, and that a woman in this con­dition was allowed to handle the Quran.34 There is not the least idea of defilement in a menstruating woman. Even the very clothes which she wears need not be washed if they are not actually defiled.35

The Imam

The most important office-bearer in the mosque36 is the Imām, the man who leads the prayers and delivers the sermon (khuṭbah) on Friday. The honour of leading the prayers was, in the time of the Holy Prophet, and also for a long time after that, given to the best man in the community. Bukhari has the following heading for one of his chapters: “Those who are well-grounded in knowledge and possess the greatest excellence are most entitled to lead prayer”.37 Abu Dawud narrates sayings of the Holy Prophet requiring the honour of leading the prayer to be con­ferred on the man who was most learned in the Quran, or in a case where two men were equal in that respect, other considerations were to be applied.38

The Holy Prophet himself was the Imam in the central mosque at Madinah and after him his successors, the respective caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman. When a governor was appointed to a province, he was also appointed as Imam to lead the prayers. The office of the spiritual leader and that of the temporal leader were combined in one person for a long time. The priest and the present-day mulla had no place in early Islam. Nor does the Imam, like the mosque, stand in need of consecration, because everyone is consecrated by entering into the fold of Islam. Anyone can lead the prayers in the absence of the Imam, and anyone may act as Imam when several people are gathered together. A wom­an is also spoken of as acting as an Imam, while men followed her, though it was in her own house.39

Section 3: Purification

Outward purification as a prelude to prayer

Prayer, according to the Holy Quran and Hadith, is the means for the purification of the soul, and also of the body and the garments one wears which is declared to be necessary as a preparation for prayer. The 74th chapter of the Quran is the second reve­lation which the Holy Prophet received, and its first five verses may here be quoted to show the importance of outward cleanliness in the religion of Islam:

“O you who wrap yourself up! Arise and warn, and your Lord do magnify, and your garments do purify, and uncleanliness do shun”. — 74:1–5

Thus warning the people, magnifying the Lord which is done through prayer, and purifying the garments and the body, are laid down here as three fundamental duties. The two ideas, the purification of the body and of the soul, are very often mentioned together in the Quran, for example:

“Surely Allah loves those who turn much to Him, and He loves those who purify themselves.” — 2:222

Hadith also lays special stress on outward purification. According to one, “purification is the key to prayer”;40 and according to another, “purification is one-half of faith”.41 Inward purity is the real aim, but outward purity is a necessary preparation.

The Holy Quran recommends good clothing generally and in case of prayer. It is stated that clothes are meant as a covering and also as a beauty:

“O children of Adam, we have indeed sent down to you clothing to cover your shame and for beauty; and clothing that guards against evil — that is the best.” —7:26

The clothing that guards against evil indicates that, as virtue is an embellishment of the mind, when man has seen the good of em­bellishing his person, he should be aware of the necessity of embellishing his mind.

Further on, it says:

“O children of Adam, at­tend to your adornment at every time [or place] of prayer”. — 7:31

This shows that when assembling in mosques for prayer, attention must be paid to outward appearance and purity as well. One who is dirty in clothing or person would undoubtedly be offensive to others. Hence it is specially laid down that, in the larger gatherings on Fridays, everyone must take a bath before coming to prayer, and use scent if possible. But what is specially aimed at is adornment in a spiritual sense. A Muslim must attend to inner beautification, for prayer is really meant as an aid to the beauty of the soul. He must come to prayer with a heart free from all impurities and full of the highest aspirations and noblest sentiments.

Wuḍū

Wuḍū, in the ter­minology of Islamic law, means the washing of certain parts of the body before prayers. The necessary details of wuḍū are given in the Holy Quran:

“O you who believe, when you rise up for prayer, wash your faces, and your hands up to the elbows, and wipe your heads, and [wash] your feet up to the ankles.” — 5:6

The practice of the Holy Prophet, as recorded in Hadith, contains substan­tially the same details. Briefly these may be described as follows:

Wuḍū may be performed before every prayer, but the necessity for it arises only when there has been passing of urine, stools or wind, or when one has been fast asleep.

Taking a bath

The taking of a bath is rendered necessary in certain cases before prayer can be performed. It becomes necessary after nocturnal emission of seminal fluid, sexual intercourse, the period of menstruation, and the period of post-natal bleeding. It un­doubtedly promotes habits of cleanliness and is conducive to health. The direction is contained in the Holy Quran itself:

“And if you are under an ob­ligation to perform a total ablution (junub),42 then wash yourselves.” — 5:6

Bathing is also enjoined in Hadith on occasions of large gather­ings, such as the Friday prayers and the ‘Īd prayers, when clean clothes must also be put on and scent used if available. These direc­tions serve as a prepa­ration for going before a higher Presence, and help to wrest one’s attention from lower objects and divert it to the higher, and they also make the atmosphere in which gatherings of people take place, purer and healthier.

Tayammum

When water is not available, still it is necessary to perform an act which diverts attention from bodily purifi­cation to the purity of the soul, which is the aim of prayer. The direction is thus laid down in the Holy Quran:

“And if you are sick, or on a journey, or one of you comes from the toilet, or you have had [sexual] contact with women, and you cannot find water, then resort (tayam­mamū) to pure earth and wipe your faces and your hands with it. Allah does not desire to place a burden on you but He wishes to purify you, and that He may complete His favour on you, so that you may give thanks.”

— 5:6

The word tayammum means ‘resorting’, or ‘betaking oneself’, to something, and since the word is used here in connection with betaking oneself to pure earth, tayammum has come tech­nically to mean this particular practice.

Thus when a person is unable to find water, or when the use of water or the taking of a bath is harmful, he is enjoined to avail himself of pure earth, which is stated to be a means of purification. Now, wiping of the face and the hands with earth does not serve the purpose of bodily purification; therefore it is the purification of the soul which is intended here. By the order of tayammum attention is thus drawn to the inner purpose under­lying wuḍū and the bath.

As stated in the Holy Quran, and amplified in Hadith, tayammum consists of striking both hands on pure earth or anything containing pure dust, then blowing off the excess of dust from the hands, and passing the hands over the face and the backs of the two hands, the left over the right and the right over the left.43

Section 4: The Call to Prayer

The origin of the call to prayer (adhān)

The word adhān means an ‘announcement’, or an announcement of prayer and of its time— the call to prayer.44 Regarding its origin, Bukhari tells us that when Muslims came to Madinah, they used, at first, to have a time appointed for prayer, at which they all gathered together. This arrangement being unsatisfactory, a consultation was held at which, suggestions for ringing a bell or blowing a horn having been rejected, Umar proposed that a man should be appointed who should call out for prayer. At this the Holy Prophet ordered Bilal to call out for prayers in the words of adhān as we now have it.45 The need for the call to prayer was felt after the emigration of the Muslims to Madinah because at Makkah the unbelievers did not allow them to say their prayers openly.

The delivery of the Call to Prayer

The Call to Prayer is delivered in every mosque, or wherever there is a gather­ing for congregational prayer,46 five times a day. The call is given out from a minaret or some raised platform in a loud voice. The man giving the call stands with his face to the Qiblah, i.e., towards Mak­kah, with both hands raised to the ears, chanting the following sentences in the order given:

The following sentence is added in the call to the morning (fajr) prayer after Ḥayya ‘ala-l- falāḥ (‘Come to success’):

Significance of adhān

The adhān is not only an announcement of the time of prayer, but also of the great principles of Islam and of the significance underlying them. It is an announcement, made five times daily, of the unity of God and of the prophethood of Muhammad, which are the two fundamental principles of Islam. But it goes further and carries also the real sig­nificance of the Unity of God which is contained in the words Allāhu Akbar or Allah is the Greatest, so that man must bow only before Him, and before none else. And the real message of religion, the realization of the Divine in man, is declared with equal force, “Come to prayer”, and immediately thereafter, “Come to success”. Coming to prayer is the attainment of success in life because it is only through the realization of the Divine in man that complete self-development (falāḥ) is attained. The meaningless ringing of a bell or blowing of a trumpet is replaced by an announcement of the principles of Islam and a declaration that anyone may attain to success in life through prayer.

Section 5: Times of Prayer

Regularization of prayer

The institution of prayer in Islam is a perfectly regularized institution, and it is the first lesson which a Muslim learns in the organization of things. Without divesting the individual of the liberty to pray to God at whatsoever place and time and in whatsoever manner he or she likes, Islam has thoroughly organized the institution of prayer. As stated earlier, prayer brings about not only the development of the individual but also a perfect development of society, being a means for the unification of humanity. This latter object cannot be obtained without a properly organized insti­tution of prayer with a fixed place and fixed times and a uniform method, so that through it individuals may be brought together. Hence it is that the Holy Quran requires prayer to be said at appointed times:

“Prayer indeed has been enjoined on the believers at fixed times.” — 4:103

Times of prayer

The Quran does not explicitly state the times of prayer, but it does give indications of these times. For example, it is stated:

“Keep up prayer from the declining of the sun till the darkness of the night, and the recital of the Quran at dawn. Surely the recital of the Quran at dawn is wit­nessed.” — 17:78

Now, as the practice of the Holy Prophet shows, there are four prayers which follow one another suc­cessively: the early afternoon prayer, the late afternoon prayer, the sunset prayer and the night prayer; and the time of each of the first three extends till the starting time of the next pray­er (with the exception of a very short interval, when the sun is actually setting, between the late afternoon and the sunset prayer). These four prayers are, therefore, spoken of together in the words “from the declining of the sun till the darkness of the night”, the times of the first and last of these being clearly mentioned. The morning prayer is men­tioned separately as “the recital of the Quran at dawn”.

In another verse it is stated:

“And celebrate the praise of your Lord47 before the rising of the sun and before its setting, and glorify Him during the hours of the night and parts of the day, that you may be well-pleased.” — 20:130

Here the morning prayer (“before the rising of the sun”) and the late afternoon prayer (“before its setting”) are indicated while the two evening prayers are spoken of together as being “during the hours of the night”. A third verse of the later Makkah period throws fur­ther light on the times of the prayers:

“And keep up prayer at the two ends of the day and in the first hours of the night.” — 11:114

The addition of the words “first hours” of the night here makes it clear that, apart from a prayer in the darkness of the night, which is spoken of in 17:78, there is also a prayer in the “first hours”, that is to say, immedi­ately after sunset.47a Thus, in an explicit way, the morning prayer, the early afternoon and the night prayer are referred to in 17:78, the late afternoon prayer in 20:130, and the sunset prayer in 11:114.

Five obligatory prayers

The five times of prayer are thus mentioned in the Holy Quran, not in one place but in many, as if by way of reference to something which already existed. As a matter of fact, the Quran only enjoins the organization (iqāmah) of prayer and the details of that organization were given by the Holy Prophet guided by the Holy Spirit48 or by his inner revelation. The following are the times of the five obligatory prayers, and their names, according to the practice of the Holy Prophet:

1. Fajr, or the early morning prayer, is said after dawn and before sun­rise. It is mentioned by this name in the Quran in 17:78 and 24:58. If the time is missed, then the prayer may still be said even though the sun may have risen.49

2. Ẓuhr, or the early afternoon prayer, is said when the sun begins to decline, and its time extends until the next prayer. In the summer it is better to delay it till the severity of the sun is mitigated a little.50

3. ‘Aṣr, or the late afternoon prayer, is said when the sun is about mid­way on its course to setting, and its time extends till the sun begins to set.51

4. Maghrib, or the sunset prayer, is said immediately after the sun sets, and its time extends till the red glow in the west disappears.

5. ‘Ishā’, or the night prayer, is said when the red glow in the west dis­appears, and its time extends till midnight. It is mentioned by name in the Quran in 24:58.

Combining prayers

The two afternoons prayers, Ẓuhr and ‘Aṣr, may be combined when one is on a journey, and so may the two night prayers, Maghrib and Ishā’.52 Such a combination is also allowed when it is raining, and according to one hadith this combination may be effected even when there is neither journey nor rain.53 The Holy Prophet is said to have combined prayers “so that his followers may not be in difficulty”.54 When two prayers are thus combined, their time is from the starting time of the earlier prayer to the ending time of the later prayer.

Voluntary prayers

The only voluntary prayer spoken of in the Quran is Tahajjud:

“And during a part of the night, keep awake by it, beyond what is incumbent on you; maybe your Lord will raise you to a position of great glory.” — 17:79

While it is voluntary for Muslims generally, the Holy Prophet, in one of the earli­est revelations in chapter 73, was commanded to observe it and in the same chapter, we are told further on, that this prayer was regularly observed by the Prophet and even by his Companions.55 It is said after midnight, after one has had some sleep. In some Hadith reports, another voluntary prayer called Ḍuḥā is mentioned. Ḍuḥā is the time before noon when the sun is high.

Section 6: The Service

The form and spirit of the prayer

The Arabic word for prayer is ṣalāt, which originally means ‘praying’ or ‘the making of a supplication’, and was employed in this sense before Islam. In the Holy Quran, the word is used both in the technical sense of Di­vine service as established by Islam, and in the general sense of simply praying as in “surely your prayer is a relief to them” (9:103), i.e., that the prayer of the Holy Prophet for his followers brings comfort to them.

In the technical sense it is almost always used with one of the derivatives of the word iqāmah, which means ‘keeping a thing in a right state’. Hence the iqāmah of ṣalāt would mean the keeping of the prayer in a right state, which includes both the proper observance of the outward form and main­taining its true spirit. The purification before prayer, the mosque, the fixing of times and finally the settling of the form, are all parts of the outward organization, without which the spirit could not have been kept alive. Hence a form has been fixed for the institution of the Islamic prayer, the individual having, in addition, liberty to pray to God in accordance with the desire of his own soul, when and where and as he or she likes. Like the times of prayer, the form was revealed to the Holy Prophet by the Holy Spirit or Gabriel.

The outward form is not, however, the end; it is only a help. Thus in the Holy Quran, the observance of the form of the prayer is spoken of as being meant to free a person from evil:

“And keep up prayer at the two ends of the day and in the first hours of the night. Surely good deeds take away evil deeds. This is a reminder for the mindful.” — 11:114

And only they are said to attain self-development, or success, who are true to the spirit of the prayer:

“Successful indeed are the believers, who are humble in their prayers”. — 23:1–2

And mere form without the spirit is condemned in one of the earliest revelations:

“So woe to the praying ones, who are unmindful of [the spirit of] their prayers, who do good to be seen, and refrain from acts of kindness.” — 107:4–7

It is a great mistake to think that Islam only requires the form to be observed; it no doubt enjoins a form, but only a form with a spirit in it.

Parts of the Divine service

Each service has two parts, the congregational, which is called farḍ (ob­ligatory), and individual, which is called sunnah (the Holy Prophet’s practice). Both are made up of a number of sections, each called a rak‘ah, varying from two to four. Literally the rak‘ah is an act of bowing down before God, but tech­nically it indicates one complete act of devotion which includes stand­ing, bowing down, prostration and sitting reverentially, and is thus a kind of a unit in the Divine service. The order in which these different postures are adopted is a natural order. The worshipper first stands reverentially and offers certain prayers; then he bows down and glorifies God; then he stands up again praising God; then falls prostrate placing his forehead on the ground and glorifying God; then he sits down in a reverential po­sition and makes a petition; then again falls down in prostration. Each change of posture (except as mentioned later) is performed with the utterance of the words Allāhu Akbar, “Allah is the Greatest”, known as takbīr.

The obligatory part of the prayer which, in a congregation, is performed after the Imam, contains the following number of rak‘ahs:

Fajr or morning prayer 2

Ẓuhr or early afternoon prayer 4

‘Aṣr or late afternoon prayer 4

Maghrib or sunset prayer 3

‘Ishā’ or night prayer 4

The individual parts (sunnah) con­tain the following number of rak‘ahs, which are said before or after the obligatory part as indicated:

Fajr 2 rak‘ahs before.

Ẓuhr 4 rak‘ahs before, 2 rak‘ahs after.

Maghrib 2 rak‘ahs after.

‘Ishā’ 2 rak‘ahs after, followed by 3 rak‘ahs called witr.

Witr is really part of the tahajjud prayer (see later).

Postures of prayer

The prayer is started with the standing position (qiyām). The worshipper, turn­ing his face in the direction of the Ka‘bah, the Central Mosque of the world, raises both hands to his ears and utters the Allāhu Akbar (“Allah is the Greatest”). With this utterance, attention to everything but prayer is prohibited. As a sign of reverence for the Holy Presence, before Whom the worshipper stands, the hands are thereafter folded on the breast. That is the preferable position, but they may as well be folded lower below the navel, or they may be left quite free in the natural position. These are small matters in which people may differ according to their tastes. The essential factor is that the worshipper should stand in a reverential position, having the feeling that he is standing before the Holy and Majestic Presence. In this standing position, the Divine Being is praised and prayers are addressed to Him and certain portions of the Holy Quran are recited, as will be explained later on.

This is followed by the posture known as rukū‘, which means ‘bowing down’. The change of posture is marked by the utterance of Allāhu Akbar. In this posture the worshipper, while standing, bows forward and places both his hands on his knees and utters words declaring Divine glory.

Next comes the sajdah, or prostration, but before falling down in sajdah the worshipper rises up from the rukū‘, so that he again assumes the stand­ing position with both hands hanging down freely, and along with the as­sumption of this position the following words are uttered: Sami‘ Allāhu li-man ḥamidah, meaning, “Allah listens to him who praises Him”. And, with this, words of Divine praise are uttered, Rabba­-nā wa la-k-al-ḥamd, that is, “Our Lord! all praise is due to You”. After thus standing up, the worshipper prostrates himself with Allāhu Akbar on his lips. In this state, the toes of both feet, both knees, both hands and the forehead touch the ground, and thus a posture of the ut­most humility is assumed, while words declaring the Divine glory and Divine greatness are on the lips of the worshipper. This posture is assumed twice, the worshipper in between raising his head with Allāhu Akbar on his lips and briefly assuming the sitting position.

After the first rak‘ah, the worshipper stands up, while uttering Allāhu Akbar, and performs the second rak‘ah in exactly the same manner as the first. After the second rak‘ah the sitting position (qa‘dah) is assumed, with the open hands placed on the knees. This position is kept so long as the necessary recitals are made.

If the prayer consists of two rak‘ahs, it ends in this position. In the case of three or four rak‘ahs the standing position is again assumed, while uttering Allāhu Akbar, and the required number of rak‘ahs (one or two) is performed in the same manner. The last position, with which the prayer comes to an end, is in all cases the sitting position and the prayer concludes with the utterance of the words as-salāmu ‘alai-kum wa raḥmat-ullāh, meaning ‘Peace be on you and the mercy of Allah’.

Departure from these postures

The different postures are sufficient to inspire the heart of the worshipper with true awe of the Divine Being, and to bring before his mind a picture of the great majesty and glory of God, as he stands up, then bows down, then places his forehead on the ground. It cannot be denied that the different postures of the body have a corresponding effect on the mind, and Islam seeks to make the spiritual experience of the Muslim perfect by making him assume one position of reverential humility after another, so that he may pass from one experience to another.

The law allows modifications in certain cases; as, for instance, when a person is sick, he may say his prayers in a sitting position, or if unable to sit down, he may say them while lying down, dispensing with even bowing down and prostration if neces­sary.56 So, on a journey, a person is allowed to say his prayers while riding a horse or a camel, and though this is expressly allowed only in the case of voluntary prayers, the obligatory (farḍ) prayer, while one is travelling in any vehicle, would follow the same rule. The postures adopted in all such cases must be subject to the exigencies of the situation. Even the direction of prayer may not be towards the Qiblah.57 However, when there is no exigency, one may not make a departure from the form prescribed by the Holy Prophet.

Remembrance of God (dhikr)

Corresponding to the different postures of humility which the worship­per assumes in saying his prayers, he is enjoined to give expression to the praise and glory of God, to His great attributes of love, mercy, for­giveness, etc., to confess his own weakness, to pray for Divine help to support him in his weakness and for Divine guidance to lead him aright and make him achieve the goal of his existence. All such expressions are known in Arabic by the one name dhikr, which is generally translated as remembrance. The whole of prayer is called in the Holy Quran dhikr Allāh, or the remembrance of Allah.58 The Quran itself is also frequently referred to as dhikr. Hence, whether a portion of the Quran is recited in prayer, or words giving expression to Divine glory and greatness are uttered, as taught by the Holy Prophet, all goes by the name of dhikr.

Dhikr in standing posture (qiyām)

The standing posture starts with the utterance of Allāhu Akbar, known as takbīr. Nothing besides the takbīr must be said to open the prayers. Between the first takbīr and the recital of the opening chapter of the Holy Quran, which is the most essential part of the prayer, several kinds of dhikr are reported from the Holy Prophet.59 The best known is as follows:

These dhikr are uttered in a low voice not heard by others. This is followed by the words:

The prayer actually opens with the first chapter of the Holy Quran, the Fātiḥah, prefixed by the well-known Bismillāh, as follows:

At the close of the above is said Āmīn, which means “Be it so!”

The recital of the Fātiḥah is followed by any other portion of the Quran, which may be a short or a long chapter or it may be verses selected from anywhere. Often, chapter 112, entitled al-Ikhlāṣ or ‘The Unity’, is recited, which is a chapter of four very short verses containing the doctrine of the Unity of the Divine Being in its perfection.

The standing position in the second rak‘ah is commenced with the Fātiḥah (verses 1 to 7 as above), followed by some recitation from the Quran as in the first rak‘ah. In the third and fourth rak‘ahs, only the Fātiḥah is essential.

Dhikr in bowing (rukū‘) and prostration (sajdah)

The dhikr during bowing down is as follows:

During prostration it is similar:

In each case it is repeated three times.

The sajdah, in particular, is the most fitting position for addressing any prayer in any language to the Almighty. There are reports showing that the Holy Prophet used to pray in the sajdah in both forms: in the form of glorify­ing and praising the Divine Being and in the form of petition or asking the Divine Being for His favours.60 Numerous forms of these prayers are given in Hadith, and all of them show an outpouring of the soul in a state of true submission, which is what, in fact, every wor­shipper needs, and therefore he is free to express the yearning of his soul before his great Maker in any way that he likes.

Dhikr in sitting posture

There are two sitting postures, the first being the jalsah, the short sitting between the two sajdahs. A prayer which may be addressed in this position is as follows:

The second sitting position, the qa‘dah, is assumed after the first two rak‘ahs have been offered. During this the following pra­y­er is offered:

In a prayer of two rak‘ahs, the worshipper continues in this sitting position reciting other dhikr as explained below, and then concludes the prayer. In a prayer of three or four rak‘ahs, the worshipper now stands up to complete the remaining one or two rak‘ahs, till reaching again this point in the qa‘dah, where the dhikr above has been recited, and carries on as follows in the next paragraph.

Continuing in the sitting position, the following dhikr, called al-ṣalā ‘ala-l-Nabiyy, is added:

Abraham’s prayer for himself and his progeny from the Holy Quran, 14:40–41, is often added at this point. This may be followed by any other prayers which the worshipper may wish to offer.

The concluding dhikr in the sitting position is taslīm, or the utterance of the following words:

These words are uttered turning the face to the right and then uttered again turning the face to the left. This concludes the prayer.

Dhikr after finishing prayer

There is no reference in any hadith to the Holy Prophet raising up hands for supplication after offering prayers, as has become the general practice, but some kinds of dhikr are recommended. In addition to these, the recital of verse 2:255 of the Quran, known as āyat al-kursiyy (the verse of Divine knowledge), is also re­commended, as well as that of the words subḥān-Allāh (glory be to Allah), al-ḥamdu li-llāh (praise be to Allah), and Allāhu Akbar (Allah is the Greatest), several times each.

The congregation

As already noted, the essential part of the obligatory prayers called farḍ is said in congregation.61 The very form of the different prayers to be recited shows that Islam has laid special stress on prayer in congregation. The whole Muslim body that can assemble in one place, both men and women, must gather at the appointed time, praise and glorify God, and address their petitions to Him in a body. All people stand shoulder to shoulder in a row, or in several rows, as the case may be, their feet being in one line, and one person, chosen from among them and called the Imam, which means leader, leads the prayer and stands in front, with the rows behind him. If, however, there are women in the congregation, they form a row by themselves at the back, and after the congregational pra­yer is over the men are not allowed to leave their places until the women have gone out. The dis­tance between the Imam and the first row, or between the different rows, is such that the persons in each row may be able to prostrate them­selves, so that their heads may be almost at the feet of the front row. The smallest number of people that can form a congregation is two, one leading the prayer and the other fol­lowing, and these two stand together, the Imam a little ahead, say about six inches (or fifteen centimetres), and stand­ing to the left while the follower stands on the Imam’s right. If a third person joins while the prayer is thus being led, either the Imam moves forward or the person following moves backward, so that the two who follow form a row.

The discipline is so perfect that the followers are bound to obey the Imam, even though he may make a mistake, though they have the right to point out the mistake, by pronouncing the words subḥān-Allāh (glory be to Allah). This amounts to a hint that God alone is free from all defects, such being the meaning of the word subḥāna. It is, however, the judgment of the Imam which is the decisive factor, and the followers, after giving the hint, must still obey him.

Prayer announcement (iqāmah)

To announce that the congregational prayer is ready, the iqāmah (which means ‘causing to stand’) is pronounced in a loud voice, though not so loud as the call to prayer (adhān). The sentences of the adhān (see pages here–here) are also the sentences which form the iqāmah, but with the difference that the sentences which are repeated in the adhān may be uttered only once, and the following sentence is uttered twice after Ḥayya ‘ala-l- falāḥ:

The additional words of the morning adhān also do not find a place in the iqāmah, which is generally recited by the person who calls out the adhān, though in his absence anyone else standing in the row behind the Imam may do so.

Congregational prayer

When the iqāmah has been called out, the followers do not begin the prayer until the Imam starts it by saying Allāhu Akbar in a loud voice. With the utterance of these words by the Imam, the whole con­gregation, like the Imam, raises hands to ears while uttering the same words in a low voice. Both the Imam and the followers then recite, still in a low voice, some introductory dhikr, as stated above (see page here).

After this, in the two rak‘ahs of the morning prayer (Fajr) and the first two rak‘ahs of the sunset and early night prayers (Maghrib and ‘Ishā), the Imam recites the opening chapter of the Holy Quran (Fātiḥah) in a loud voice. He ought to pause slightly after every verse, so that during the interval the followers may silently repeat each sentence.62 After the Imam has recited the Fātiḥah, the whole congregation says Āmīn, either in a loud or a low voice, the former, no doubt, having the greater effect. After this, the Imam recites in a loud voice any portion of the Holy Quran, the followers listening in silence, occasionally glorifying God or praising Him or addressing some petition to Him in accordance with the subject-matter of the verses that are being recited.

In the case of the first two rak‘ahs of the other prayers (Ẓuhr and Aṣr), prayer is more in the nature of a meditation, like the private prayer, and the Imam and the followers individually recite the Fātiḥah and a portion of the Quran inaudibly. In the last two rak‘ahs of both these prayers and the early night prayer (‘Ishā), as well as in the last rak‘ah of the sunset prayer (Maghrib), the Fātiḥah is recited in a similar manner, individually and inaudibly.

The utterance of Allāhu Akbar at the changes of posture, and of the final taslīm (the words As-salāmu ‘alai-kum wa raḥmat-ullāh) ending the prayer, are, however, done by the Imam in a loud voice in all congregational pray­ers, and so is the dhikr Sami‘ Allāhu li-man ḥamidah recited on rising from the bowing position while the followers in this last case say in a low voice, Rabba­-nā wa la-k-al-ḥamd (see page here). The various dhikr during bowing down and prostration and the sitting posture are repeated in a low voice by the Imam, as well as those who follow him.

Mistake in prayer

If a mistake is made in prayer, or the worshipper is doubtful about the number of rak‘ahs, he adds, what is called sajdah sahw (sahw meaning ‘mistake’), at the close of prayer, just before the taslīm. It consists of performing a double prostration like the ordinary prostration in prayer. If the Imam has made a similar mistake, he, along with the whole congregation, performs sajdah sahw.

Late-comers

A person who comes in late joins the congregational service at the point it has reached. If he has missed one or more rak‘ahs, he must com­plete the missing number after the Imam has finished. A rak‘ah is deemed to have been completed behind the Imam if a person joins the bowing position (rukū‘), though he may have missed the standing position.

Prayer in the case of one who is on a journey

If one is on a journey, the prayers are shortened. There is some difference of opinion as to whether it is necessary that the journey should extend over a certain specified distance or a certain specified time. But the best judge on this matter is the person concerned. A time-limit of a day and a night as the minimum is favoured. The sunnahs are all dropped with the exception of the two of the morning prayer. The number of obligatory rak‘ahs in the Ẓuhr, ‘Aṣr and ‘Ishā’ is reduced from four to two, while the three rak‘ahs of the Maghrib remain unchanged. In addition to this, the person who is journeying is allowed to combine the Ẓuhr and ‘Aṣr prayers and also the Maghrib and ‘Ishā’ prayers. The witr of the ‘Ishā’ prayer are also retained.

Section 7: The Friday Service

Friday service specially ordained

There is no sabbath in Islam, and the number of prayers on Friday is the same as on any other day, with this difference, that the specially or­dained Friday service takes the place of the early afternoon (Ẓuhr) prayer. It is the greater congregation of the Muslims at which the people of a place must all gather together, as the very name of the day yaum al-jumu‘ah (‘the day of gathering’) indicates. Though all prayers are equally obligatory, yet the Holy Quran has specially ordained the Friday service, and there it enjoins all Muslims to gather together:

“O you who believe, when the call is sounded for prayer on Friday, hasten to the remembrance of Allah and leave off business. That is better for you if you know.” — 62:9

Any other prayer may be said singly under special circumstances, but not so the Friday service which is essentially a con­gregational service. The practice has been for all Mus­lims, who can do so, to gather together at a central mosque, because the underlying idea is, undoubtedly, to enable Muslims to meet together once a week in as large a number as possible.

Preparations for the Friday service

The importance of the occasion and the greater number of persons assembled have made it necessary to issue further instructions regarding cleanliness in preparation for the Friday service. For example, it is recom­mended that a bath be taken before attending, scent be used, and the best clothes available be worn; also that the mouth be well-cleaned with a tooth-brush.63

The Sermon

A special feature of the Friday service is the sermon (khuṭbah) by the Imam, before the prayer service is held. After the people have as­sembled in the mosque, following the call to prayer, the call for prayer is given for a second time while the Imam is sitting. When the adhān is finished, the Imam stands up fac­ing the audience and delivers the sermon. He begins with the kalimah shahādah — the Arabic sentence meaning “I bear witness that there is none to be worshipped but Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad is His servant and Messenger” — or words speaking of the praise and glory of God, and then goes on to recite a text of the Quran which he expounds to the audience, who are specially enjoined to remain sitting and silent during the sermon.64 This is delivered in two parts, the Imam taking a little rest by assuming the sitting position in the middle of the sermon, and then continuing.

Any subject relating to the welfare of the community may be dealt with in the sermon. The Holy Prophet’s practice shows that the sermon is for the education of the masses, to awaken them to a general sense of duty, to lead them to the ways of their welfare and prosperity and warn them against that which is a source of loss or ruin to them. Therefore it must be delivered in a language which the people understand, and there is no sense in delivering it in Arabic to an audience which does not know the language. Prayer service is quite different, as it consists of a number of stated sentences, the meaning of which can be fully learnt in a short period. It is of the utmost importance that the masses should know what the preacher is saying in the Friday sermon which is the best means of educa­tion for the masses and for maintaining the vitality of the Muslim com­munity as a whole.

The Friday service

After the sermon is over, the iqāmah is pronounced and a congrega­tional service of two rak‘ahs is held, in which the Imam recites the open­ing chapter and a portion of the Holy Quran in a loud voice, as he does in the morning and evening prayers. This is the only obligatory service, but two rak‘ahs sunnah are said as soon as a person enters the mosque; even if he comes late and the Imam has already started the sermon, the late­-comer must still perform these two rak‘ahs.65 Two rak‘ahs sunnah are also said after the service has ended.66

As already stated, there is in Islam no sabbath, or seventh day for Di­vine worship. Hence the Quran plainly speaks of daily business being done before the Friday service (62:9), leaving it only for the sake of the service, and again it speaks of business being done after the service has been held:

“But when the prayer is ended, disperse in the land and seek of Allah’s grace…” — 62:10

Section 8: The ‘Īd Prayers

Festivals of Islam

There are, in Islam, two great festivals having a religious sanction, and in connection with both of them a congregational service of two rak‘ahs is held, followed by a sermon. Both these festivals go under the name of ‘Īd, which means ‘a recurring happiness’.67 The first of these is called ‘Īd al-Fiṭr and takes place immediately after the month of fasting.68 The other is called ‘Īd al-Aḍḥā.69 Both these festivals are connected with the performance of some duty, in the first case the duty of fasting, and in the second the duty of sacrifice. A day of happiness following the performance of duty is intended to show that true happiness lies in the performance of duty. In the moment of their greatest joy, Muslims gather in as vast a congregation as possible and fall pros­trate before their great Maker, giving thanks to Him that He has enabled them to perform their duty or to make a sacrifice. The spiritual significance of both festivals is thus brought out in the Divine service which is the chief feature of the day of festival.

Gathering for the ‘Īd

The preparation for ‘Īd is similar to the preparation for the Friday service. One must take a bath, put on one’s best clothes, use scent, and do everything possible to appear neat and tidy. Though wo­men take part in all the prayers and in the Friday service, they are specially enjoined to be present at the ‘Īd gatherings, for the Holy Prophet is reported to have said that “the young girls and those that have taken to seclusion and those that have their menses on, should all go out [for the ‘Īd] and be present at the prayers of the Muslims”.70 The time of ‘Īd prayers is any time after sunrise and before noon.

The ‘Īd service

The ‘Īd service consists only of two rak‘ahs in congregation. No adhān is called out for the ‘Īd prayers, nor an iqāmah for the arranging of the lines.71 The Imam recites the Fātiḥah and a portion of the Holy Quran in a loud voice, as in the Friday service. There is a number of takbīrs (saying Allāhu Akbar) in addition to those that are meant to indicate the changes of position. On the best authority, the number of these additional takbīrs is seven in the first rak‘ah and five in the second, before the recital of the Fātiḥah in both rak‘ahs.72 A difference of opinion does, however, exist as to their number. The takbīrs are uttered aloud by the Imam, one after another, as he raises both hands to the ears and then leaves them free in the natural position. Those who stand behind him raise and lower their hands similarly.

The ‘Īd sermon

The ‘Īd sermon is delivered after Divine service is over. As regards the manner and the subjects dealt with, it is similar to the Friday sermon, except that it is not necessary to break it up into two parts by assuming the sitting posture in the middle of it. It was the Holy Prophet’s practice to address the women separately, who were all required to be present whether they joined in the service or not.

The ‘Īd charity

While celebrating the great ‘Īd festivals, a Muslim not only remem­bers God by attending the Divine service but he is also enjoined to remem­ber his poorer brethren. The institution of a charitable fund is associated with both occasions. On the occasion of the ‘Īd al-Fiṭr, every Muslim is re­quired to give ṣadaqa al-Fiṭr (lit., the Fiṭr charity). A monetary level is fixed by the Muslim community per family member, including the old as well as the youngest members, males as well as females. The payment is to be made before the service is held, and it is obligatory. It is meant to be an organized institution according to Hadith.73

‘Īd al-Aḍḥā also furnishes an occasion for the exercise of charity. The sacrifice of an animal on that day (for which see under the next heading) not only makes the poorest members of the community enjoy the festival with a good feast of meat but national funds for the amelioration of the poor or the welfare of the community can be considerably strengthened if the skins of the sacrificed animals are devoted to this purpose. In addi­tion to this, in places where the number of sacrificed animals is in excess of the needs of the population, the surplus meat may be preserved and sold, and the proceeds thereof used for some charitable object. Islam does not allow the wastage of natural resources, and it has organized all its charities in such a manner that they can be turned to the best use.

The Sacrifice

At the ‘Īd al-Aḍḥā, every Muslim who can afford to do sacrifices an animal. In the case of a goat or a sheep, one animal suffices for one house­hold, while in the case of a cow or a camel, seven men may be partners.74 The animal is sacrificed after the ‘Īd prayers are over. It may be sacrificed on the day of ‘Īd or during the two or three days that follow, called the tashrīq days, the time during which pilgrims stop in Mina.75

As regards the meat of the slaugh­tered animals, the Holy Quran says:

“Eat of them and feed the contented one and the beggar.” — 22:36

There is no harm if it is dried and sold and the proceeds used for the feeding of the poor. The idea that the meat of the sacrifices should not be stored or eaten for more than three days is contradicted by a saying of the Holy Prophet.76 The giving of one-third, or more, or less, to the poor is simply optional. No hard and fast rules have been laid down. The skin of the animal must, however, be disposed of in charity.77

Can sacrifice be replaced by charity?

It is sometimes asked: May not a Muslim, in­stead of sacrificing an animal, give away its price in charity? The answer to this question, in the light of the Islamic law, is in the negative. The sacrifice by Muslims throughout the world on the ‘Īd day is intended to make Muslim hearts, throughout the world, beat in unison with the hearts of the unparalleled assemblage at Makkah, the centre of Islam. Mil­lions of people assemble there from all parts of the world, people who have sacrificed all comforts of life for no object except to develop the idea of sacrifice, a sacrifice selfless beyond all measure, because it has no personal or even national end in view, a sacrifice for the sake of God alone. However grand that idea, it receives a greater grandeur from the fact that the people who have been unable to make that sacrifice actually, are made to share the same desire and show their willingness to make the same sacrifice by the ostensible act of the sacrifice of an animal, which is the final act of the pilgrimage. One desire moves the hearts of the whole Muslim world from one end to the other at one moment, and this is made possible only by the institution of sacrifice. This institution also, of course, serves the purpose of charity as Islam does not allow its rich members to forget their poorer brethren in the hour of their joy at a time of festival.

The idea underlying sacrifice

The sacrifice does not consist in the act of shedding the blood of an animal or consuming its meat. This is made clear by the Holy Quran:

“Not their flesh, nor their blood, reaches Allah, but to Him is acceptable the observance of duty on your part.” — 22:37

The underlying significance is made clearer still in the following verse:

“And for every nation We appointed acts of devotion that they might mention the name of Allah on the cattle quadrupeds that He has given them. So your God is One God, therefore to Him should you submit. And give good news to the humble, whose hearts trem­ble when Allah is mentioned, and who are patient in their afflictions…”

— 22:34–35

The act of the sacrifice of an animal is thus in some way connected with righteousness, with submission to One God, with hum­bleness of heart, with patience under sufferings; and the sacrifice of the ani­mal is plainly regarded as affecting the heart, as making it tremble at the mention of Allah’s name. Taking away the life of an animal and shedding its blood does not make them ferocious but creates humbleness in their hearts. The institution of sacrifice has been accepted in one form or another by all the nations of the world. Like all other religious principles which are universally recognized, the principle of sacrifice finds a deeper meaning in Islam. The outward act is still there but it no longer conveys the meaning attached to it in some ancient religions, namely that of appeasing an offended deity or serving as an atonement for sin. In Islam it signifies the sacrifice of the sacrificer himself. The ani­mal that is sacrificed really stands for the animal within him. And one day, and one particular moment on that day, is chosen so that all Muslim hearts from one end of the world to the other may pulsate with one idea at a particular moment, and thus lead to the deve­lopment of the idea of self-sacrifice in the community as a whole.

Section 9: Service on the dead

Preparatory to service

A Divine service is held over the dead body of every Muslim, young or old, even of infants who have lived only for a few minutes or seconds. It is called ṣalāt al-janā’iz. When a person dies, the body is washed with soap or some other disinfectant and cleansed of all impurities which may be due to disease. In washing the dead body, the parts which are washed in ablution for prayer are taken first, and then the whole body is washed.78 It is then wrapped in one or more white sheets and scent is also added.79 The dead body is then placed on a bier, or, if necessary, in a coffin, and carried on the shoulders, as a mark of respect, to its last resting-place, though the carrying of the body by any other me­ans is not prohibited. The Holy Prophet stood up when he saw the bier of a Jew pass by. He did this to show respect to the dead, and then enjoined his followers to stand up as a mark of respect when a bier passed by, whether that of a Muslim or a non-Muslim.80

The service

Following the dead body to the grave and taking part in the Divine service held over it is regarded as a duty which a Muslim owes to a Muslim, and so is also the visiting of the sick.81 Women are not pro­hibited from going with the bier, though their presence is not considered desirable, because being more emotional and tender-hearted than men they may break down. The service may be held anywhere, in a mosque or in an open space or even in the graveyard if sufficient ground is avail­able there. All those who take part in the service must perform the ablution for prayer.

The bier is placed in front, the Imam stands facing the middle of the bier, and people form lines behind him, facing the Qiblah. The service starts with the takbīr (utterance of Allāhu Akbar), with the pronouncement of which hands are raised to the ears and placed in the same position as in prayer. Four takbīrs in all are pronounced loudly by the Imam.82 After the first takbīr, the same dhikr relating to the praise and glory of God is repeated quietly by the Imam as well as those who follow, as in the first rak‘ah of the daily service, followed by the opening chapter of the Quran (Fātiḥah) only.83 The second takbīr is then pronounced without raising the hands to the ears, and the dhikr known as al-ṣalā ‘ala-l-Nabiyy is recited quietly (see page here). After the third takbīr, a prayer for the forgiveness of the deceased is addressed to God, again quietly. Different forms of this prayer are reported as having been offered by the Prophet, and it seems that prayer in any form is permissible. After the fourth takbīr, the taslīm (i.e., As-salāmu ‘alai-kum wa raḥmat-ullāh) is pronounced loudly by the Imam, as at the close of prayer. The entire service is held in the standing position. A similar Divine service may be held in the case of a deceased when the dead body is not present.84

When the service is over, the bier is taken to the grave and buried. The grave is dug in such a manner that the dead body may be laid in it facing Makkah. After burial, a prayer is again offered for the deceased and the people then depart.

Patience enjoined under afflictions

Islam forbids indulgence in intemperate grief for the dead. It requires that all affliction be borne patiently, as the Holy Quran says:

“And We shall certainly try you with some­thing of fear and hunger and loss of property and lives and fruits. And give good news to the patient, who, when a misfortune befalls them, say: Surely we are Allah’s and to Him we shall return.” — 2:155–156

On hearing of the death of a relative or a friend or of any other affliction, a Muslim is enjoined to say Innā li-llāhi wa innā ilai-hi rāji‘ūn: “Surely we are Allah’s and to Him we shall return”. These words are a source of unlimited solace and comfort in bereavement. Allah has taken away His own; all of us come from God and must return to Him. Hence it is for­bidden that one should indulge in excessive mourning or ostentatious grief.

A very large number of innovations has grown up about what may be done for the benefit of the dead. There is no mention in any hadith of distributing charity at the grave, or having the Quran recited at the grave or elsewhere for the benefit of the dead. There are reports speaking of the Quran being read to the dying person,85 but there is no mention at all of its being read over the dead body or over the grave. Neither is there any mention of saying the Fātiḥah, or a prayer for the dead, when people come to console the relatives of the departed. The Holy Prophet is, however, reported as having prayed for the dead when visit­ing their graves, and the simple act of asking forgiveness for the deceased is not forbidden. The preparing of food on the third or tenth or fortieth day after death is also an innovation. There is no mention of it in any hadith. Instead of the family of the deceased preparing food for others, it is recommended that food should be prepared and sent to the family of the deceased by others.86

Alms may, however, be given on behalf of the deceased, and doing deeds of charity is the only thing allowed. It is stated in a hadith that “a man came to the Messenger of Allah and said that his mother had died suddenly, and he was sure that if she could speak, she would give something in charity, and enquired whether she would get any reward if he gave charity on her behalf.” The Holy Prophet is reported to have replied in the affirmative.87

Section 10: Tahajjud and Tarāwīḥ

Tahajjud prayer is voluntary

The word tahajjud literally signifies the ‘giving up of sleep’. The Tahajjud prayer is so called because it is said after one has had some sleep, and sleep is then given up for the sake of prayer. It is specially mentioned, even enjoined, in the Holy Quran itself in the very earliest revelations, but it is expressly stated to be voluntary.88

As the Holy Quran shows, the Holy Prophet used to pass half or even two-thirds of the night in prayer (see 73:20). His practice was to go to sleep immediately after the ‘Ishā’ prayers, and then he generally woke up after midnight and passed almost all this latter half of the night in Tahajjud prayers, sometimes taking a short nap, which would give him a little rest, just before the morning prayer. This practice he kept up to the last. While in the congregational prayers the recitation of the Holy Quran was generally short, in consideration of the children, women and aged people among the audience, the recitation in the Tahajjud prayers was generally long.

The Tahajjud prayer consists of eight rak‘ahs, divided into a service of two at a time, followed by three rak‘ahs of witr. To make it easier for the common people the witr prayer, which is really a part of Tahajjud, has been made a part of the voluntary portion of ‘Ishā’ or night prayer, and therefore, if the witr prayer has been said with ‘Ishā’, Tahajjud would consist of only eight rak‘ahs. But if there is not suffi­cient time, one may stop after any two rak‘ahs.89 The Companions of the Holy Prophet were very particular about Tahajjud prayer, though they knew it was not obligatory. The Holy Prophet laid special stress on Tahajjud in the month of Ramadan, and it was the Tahajjud prayer that ultimately took the form of Tarāwīḥ in that month.

Tahajjud was an individual pray­er, but later on, Umar introduced a change whereby this prayer in Ramadan became a congregational prayer during the early part of the night, and was said after the ‘Ishā’ prayer. He himself is reported to have said that it was an innovation, though the latter part of night during which people kept on sleeping was preferable to the early part in which they said this prayer.90 While for the average person the change introduced by Umar is welcome, nevertheless in the month of Ramadan Tahajjud in the latter part of the night and as an individual prayer is prefer­able.

Tarāwīḥ

The origin of the word Tarāwīḥ means ‘the act of taking rest’. The name Tarāwīḥ seems to have been given to this prayer because the worshippers take a brief rest after every two rak‘ahs. It is now the practice that the whole of the Holy Quran is recited in the Tarāwīḥ prayers in the month of Ramadan. The number of rak‘ahs in the Tarāwīḥ prayers seems, at first, to have been eleven, being exactly the number of rak‘ahs in the Tahajjud prayers (including of course three witr rak‘ahs). Later on, the number seems to have been increased to twenty, with three rak‘ahs of witr, now making a total of twenty-three. And this practice is now generally maintained through­out the Muslim world, the Ahl Hadith and Ahmadis being almost the only exception.

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Notes to Chapter 11

1. Bukhari, book 8: ‘Prayer’, ch. 38, h. 416 and ch. 39, h. 417; book 9: ‘Times of prayers’, ch. 8, h. 531 and h. 532; book 21: ‘Actions while praying’, ch. 12, h. 1214.

2. Bukhari, book 2: ‘Faith’, ch. 37, h. 50.

3. Bukhari, book 9: ‘Times of prayers’, ch. 6, h. 528.

4. See also in the Quran 39:39, 90:4.

5. The Quran, 73:20.

6. Bukhari, book 8: ‘Prayer’, ch. 56, h. 438.

7. Ibid., book 8, ch. 69, h. 454–455.

8. Ibid., book 8, ch. 68, h. 453.

9. Bukhari, book 8: ‘Prayer’, ch. 44, h. 423; book 92: ‘Tribulations (Fitan)’, ch. 18, h. 7100 and h. 7101.

10. See, for example, Bukhari, book 8: ‘Prayer’, ch. 57, h. 439; ch. 77, h. 463; and ch. 78, heading.

11. Abu Dawud, book 2: ‘Prayer’, ch. ‘Gathering on Friday before prayer’, h. 1079.

12. Bukhari, book 8: ‘Prayer’, ch. 83, h. 470.

13. Ibid., book 8, ch. 37, h. 415.

14. Ibid., book 8, ch. 24, h. 386.

15. Ibid., book 8, ch. 72, h. 458.

16. Bakkah is the same as Makkah, being from tabākk meaning the crowding together of people. See Raghib’s Mufradāt and Rāzī’s commen­tary.

17. Al-Nihāyah under Kufr.

18. Abu Dawud, book 2: ‘Prayer’, ch. ‘Building of Mosques’, h. 448.

19. Ibid., h. 449.

20. Bukhari, book 9: ‘Times of the prayers’, ch. 22, h. 566.

21. Bukhari, book 8: ‘Prayer’, ch. 13, h. 372; see also book 10: ‘Call to Prayer’, h. 867 and h. 872.

22. Bukhari, book 10: ‘Call to prayer’, ch. 65, h. 707–710.

23. Ibid., book 10, ch. 152, h. 837; see also h. 849, h. 850 and h. 870.

24. Bukhari, book 11: ‘Friday Prayer’, ch. 13, h. 900; see also h. 899.

25. Bukhari, book 10: ‘Call to prayer’, ch. 162, h. 865.

26. Ibid., book 10, ch. 166, h. 873.

27. Bukhari, book 13: ‘The two ‘Īds’, ch. 15, h. 974; ch. 21, h. 981; and ch. 12, h. 971. See also book 6: ‘Menstruation’, ch. 23, h. 324.

28. Bukhari, book 10: ‘Call to prayer’, ch. 164, h. 870, h. 871.

29. Bukhari, book 25: ‘Pilgrimage (manāsik)’, ch. 23, saying of Aishah in the chapter heading.

30. Bukhari, book 10: ‘Call to prayer’, ch. 163, h. 866, h. 867.

31. Bukhari, book 13: ‘The two ‘Īds’, ch. 12, the chapter heading.

32. Encyclopaedia of Islam, first edition, art. Masjid, v. 3, p. 326, col. 2.

33. The Quran, 2:222.

34. Bukhari, book 6: ‘Menstruation’, chs. 2–5.

35. Ibid., book 6, ch. 11, h. 312.

36. Every mosque will ordinarily have a mutawallī (lit., guardian), who is charged with its management by those who have built it. The mutawallī has the right to appoint the imam, but he has no right to prohibit Muslims, on account of sectarian differences, from entering the mosque. Every mosque has also generally a mu’adhdhin who gives the call for prayers, and may also look after the mosque.

37. Bukhari, book 10: ‘Call to prayer’, ch. 46.

38. Abu Dawud, book 2: ‘Prayer’, ch. ‘Who is more entitled to be Imam’, h. 582–584, h. 589.

39. Ibid., ch: ‘Women acting as Imam’, h. 591–592.

40. Tirmidhi, book 1: ‘Purification’, ch. 3, h. 3.

41. Muslim, book 2: ‘Purification’, ch. 1, h. 223 (DS: h. 534).

42. The word junub is a technical term and means ‘one who is under an obligation to perform a total ablution’, i.e., to take a bath. To call this a state of pollution or defilement is not correct.

43. Bukhari, book 7: ‘Tayammum’, ch. 4, h. 338, and ch. 5, h. 339–343.

44. Lane’s Lexicon.

45. Bukhari, book 10: ‘Call to prayer’, ch. 1, h. 604.

46. Ibid., book 10, ch. 18, h. 630–631.

47. This refers to prayer as shown by the context, since 20:132 says: “And enjoin prayer on your people and steadily adhere to it.”

47a. Editor’s Note: Prayer at “the two ends of the day” in 11:114 indicates the morning prayer, Fajr, at one end and the two afternoon prayers, Ẓuhr and ‘Aṣr, at the other.

48. Bukhari, book 9: ‘Times of the prayers’, ch. 1, h. 521–522.

49. Ibid., ch. 35, h. 595.

50. Ibid., ch. 9, h. 533–538.

51. Ibid., ch. 11, h. 541.

52. Bukhari, book 18: ‘Shortening the prayers’, chs. 13–15, h. 1106–1111.

53. Bukhari, book 9: ‘Times of the prayers’, ch. 12, h. 543.

54. Muslim, book 6: ‘Prayer of Travellers and its Shortening’, ch. 6, h. 705b, 705c, 706b, 705d (DS: h. 1629, 1630, 1632, 1633).

55. The Quran, 73:1–4 and 73:20.

56. Bukhari, book 18: ‘Shortening the prayers’, ch. 19, h. 1117.

57. Ibid., ch. 7, h. 1093, 1094, 1095, and ch. 8, h. 1096.

58. The Quran, 29:45, 62:9, 63:9 etc.

59. Editor’s Note: Many of the dhikr and prayers reproduced by Maulana Muhammad Ali in the The Religion of Islam have been omitted in this Handbook. These are also given in his book The Muslim Prayer Book. The reader should refer to those two books for further details.

60. Zād al-Ma‘ād, vol. I, p. 60.

61. When an individual is unable to join a congregation, he or she says the obligatory part in the same manner as the sunnah part is said individually.

62. The Hanafis, however, hold that the Imam’s recitation is sufficient, and that the followers need not recite the sentences of the Fātiḥah.

63. Bukhari, book 11: ‘Friday Prayer’, ch. 2, h. 877–879, ch. 3, h. 880, and chs. 7–8, h. 886–888.

64. Ibid., ch. 6, h. 883, and ch. 19, h. 910.

65. Ibid., ch. 32, h. 930, and ch. 33, h. 931.

66. Ibid., ch. 39, h. 937.

67. Editor’s Note: The word ‘Īd is often spelt in English as Eid to indicate the pronunciation to the general reader.

68. The word fiṭr means ‘to begin’, from which is also derived fiṭrah meaning ‘nature’. Ifṭār means ‘the breaking of the fast’, as if the faster had returned to a natural course, and it is from this that the name ‘Īd al-Fiṭr seems to have been taken, because it immediately follows the month of fasts.

69. Aḍḥā is the plural of aḍḥāt, meaning ‘a sacrifice’.

70. Bukhari, book 13: ‘The two ‘Īds’, ch. 15, h. 974; book 6: ‘Menstruation’, ch. 23, h. 324.

71. Bukhari, book 13: ‘The two ‘Īds’, ch. 7, h. 959–960.

72. Tirmidhi, book 5: ‘The two ‘Īds’, ch. 34, h. 536.

73. Bukhari, book 24: ‘Zakāt’, ch. 77, h. 1511; book 40: ‘Representation, Proxy (Wakāla)’, ch. 10, h. 2311.

74. Tirmidhi, book 19: ‘Sacrifices’, ch. 8, h. 1502 (DS: book 17).

75. Mishkat, book 4: ‘Prayer’, ch. 49, sec. 3, h. 1388 (v. 1, p. 313).

76. Bukhari, book 25: ‘Pilgrimage’, ch. 124, h. 1719.

77. Ibid., ch. 121, h. 1717.

78. Bukhari, book 23: ‘Funerals’, chs. 9–11, h. 1254–1256.

79. Ibid., chs. 19–21, h. 1265–1267, and ch. 26, h. 1275.

80. Ibid., ch. 49, h. 1311–1312.

81. Ibid., ch. 2, h. 1239–1240.

82. Ibid., ch. 64, h. 1333–1334.

83. Ibid., ch. 65, h. 1335.

84. Ibid., ch. 4, h. 1245.

85. Abu Dawud, book 21: ‘Funerals’, ch. 24, h. 3121 (DS: book 20).

86. Bukhari, book 70: ‘Food’, ch. 24, h. 5417. Abu Dawud, book 21: ‘Fune­rals’, ch. 30, h. 3132 (DS: book 20).

87. Bukhari, book 23: ‘Funerals’, ch. 95, h. 1388; book 55: ‘Wills’, ch. 15, h. 2756.

88. The Quran, 73:1–6, 73:20 and 17:79.

89. Bukhari, book 19: ‘Tahajjud’, ch. 10, h. 1137.

90. Bukhari, book 31: ‘Tarawīḥ’, ch. 1, h. 2010.