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14. Pilgrimage (Ḥajj) (See Editor’s general note.) The word ḥajj means, literally, ‘repairing to a thing for the sake of a visit’, and in Islamic law ‘repairing to the House of Allah’ to observe the necessary devotions.1 Bait-Allāh, or the House of Allah, is one of the names by which the Ka‘bah is known. The word manāsik, meaning ‘acts of worship’, is particularly used to signify the acts of devotion prescribed in the pilgrimage to Makkah, and it is generally under the head manāsik that injunctions relating to the pilgrimage are mentioned in Hadith collections. Critics’ views on adoption of the pilgrimage by Islam As an institution ḥajj existed before the advent of Islam from a very remote antiquity. Modern Western criticism takes the view that its adoption by Islam, with certain reforms, of course, was due to several causes which sprang up after the Prophet’s migration to Madinah. Chief among these causes are said to be the victory won by Islam at Badr which, it is suggested, made the Prophet look forward to the conquest of Makkah, and the final rupture with the Jews, whom the Prophet had, at first, hoped to win over to his cause.2 This theory is in flat contradiction to historical facts. The battle of Badr was fought in the month of Ramadan, in the second year of Hijrah, and the final rupture with the Jews came in the third year after the battle of Uhud; while the Ka‘bah was made a qiblah sixteen months after the Hijrah,3 that is to say, about three months before the battle of Badr. The structure which, according to this theory, was built on the victory of Badr and the rupture with the Jews — that is to say, the idea of formulating a doctrine of the religion of Abraham, the father of monotheism, as a prototype of Islam, Judaism and Christianity; of the sacredness of the Ka‘bah and its connection with the names of Abraham and Ishmael; of the Ka‘bah being made a qiblah and of the institution of ḥajj with prospects of conquering Makkah — all this existed not only long before the battle of Badr but even before the Holy Prophet’s move to Madinah. The religion of Abraham as pure monotheism is mentioned in a chapter of the Quran belonging to the middle Makkah period: “Then We revealed to you [O Prophet]: Follow the faith of Abraham, the upright one; and he was not of those who set up partners [with Allah].” — 1123 And again in a chapter belonging to the last Makkah period: “My Lord has guided me to the right path — a right religion, the faith of Abraham, the upright one, and he was not of those who set up partners [with Allah].” — 161 Sacredness of Makkah and the Ka‘bah recognized in earliest revelations Similarly, the sacredness of Makkah and its connection with the names of Abraham and Ishmael finds clear mention in the early Makkah revelations. In one of the earliest chapters, Makkah is described as “this city made secure” (93). In another equally early revelation, it is referred to simply as the City: “No, I call to witness this City — and you [O Prophet] will be made free from obligation in this City — and the father and the offspring whom he produced!” —93. Here, in the last words, Abraham and Ishmael are referred to. In a revelation of the same period, the Ka‘bah is called al-Bait al-ma‘mūr, meaning “the frequented House” or the House that is visited (54), while another revelation of the early Makkah period speaks of al-Masjid al-Ḥarām or “the Sacred Mosque” (11). The sacredness of Makkah, the names of Abraham and Ishmael in connection with it, and the fact of its being a place of resort for people, are spoken of in still clearer words in revelations belonging to the middle Makkah period: “I am commanded only to serve the Lord of this City, Who has made it sacred, and His are all things.” — 291 “And when Abraham said: … Our Lord, I have settled a part of my offspring in a valley unproductive of fruit near Your Sacred House, our Lord, that they may keep up prayer; so make the hearts of some people yearn towards them and provide them with fruits…” — 1337 All these are themes of the earliest as well as the later revelations, and thus the theory built up by the critics of Islam has no foundation whatever. Why Ka‘bah was not made qiblah earlier It is true that the various commandments and prohibitions were revealed gradually, and that the command to make the Ka‘bah a qiblah was revealed at Madinah, but even this happened before the battle of Badr. Despite even the fact that it was the Prophet’s own desire that the Ka‘bah should be made his qiblah,4 he continued to follow the qiblah of the last prophet that had passed away before him, that is, Jerusalem, and awaited the Divine direction. The Quran recognized the truth of all the prophets, including the prophets of Israel, and as Jesus was the last of those prophets and his qiblah the same as that of the Israelite prophets, namely, the temple at Jerusalem, which place was honoured by the Quran (11) as al-Masjid al-Aqṣā (lit., the Remote Mosque), he retained it as his qiblah until he received an express revelation to turn towards the Sacred Mosque. Moreover, he did not receive that commandment when he was at Makkah among the idolaters when it might have been said that he was scheming to win over the Arabs; but it was after his coming to Madinah, at a time when relations with the Jews were still friendly, when the prospects of winning over the Arabs were as distant as ever, and when war with the Quraish at Makkah had become inevitable, that the Holy Prophet received a revelation to turn to the Ka‘bah as the future qiblah of the Muslim world. When was pilgrimage first instituted The ḥajj was a recognized institution in the first and second years of Hijrah before the commencement of the battles with the Quraish. The second chapter which was, in the main, revealed in 1–2 A.H., is full of directions relating to ḥajj, the context whereof shows clearly that fighting had not actually taken place, though prospects of a war were in sight. The months in which ḥajj is to be performed are mentioned in 189 and again in 197. Between these two verses occur the verses by which the Muslims were permitted to resort to fighting to defend themselves against those who attacked them (19193); from which it will be seen that the details of ḥajj were being given when fighting was as yet only permitted, and it was after that that the actual fighting began. The details of ḥajj were, therefore, revealed before the battle of Badr. There is a clear injunction there to accomplish the ḥajj: “And accomplish the ḥajj and the ‘umrah [i.e., the visit to the Ka‘bah at any time]5 for Allah.” — 196 The rules of conduct to be observed when proceeding on ḥajj are also stated in the same context: “…there shall be no immodest speech, nor abusing, nor altercation in the pilgrimage.” — 197 Other features and details of the ḥajj are also mentioned in verses 196 to 203, and even in an earlier verse 158. Hence the institution of ḥajj had already been recognized as part of the laws of Islam. In fact, we find a Muslim, here and there, performing the ḥajj in the earliest days when, on account of some alliance, he deemed himself secure, which was impossible, of course, for the generality of the Muslims. It is related of one Muslim that, on account of his friendship with a certain Quraish chief, he went to Makkah to perform an ‘umrah after the Hijrah and before the battle of Badr.6 Hence it is clear that ḥajj was a recognized institution of Islam in 1 A.H. In fact, ḥajj was instituted before the Hijrah took place, and while the Holy Prophet was still in Makkah. The chapter entitled al-Ḥajj was revealed towards the close of the Holy Prophet’s career at Makkah and it was in this chapter that ḥajj was proclaimed to be an institution of Islam: “And proclaim to mankind the Pilgrimage:7 they will come to you on foot and on every lean camel, coming from every remote path”. — 227 Verses 27 to 29 of this chapter leave not the least doubt that ḥajj was ordained as an Islamic institution before the Hijrah. The root-word ka‘aba means ‘it became prominent’ or ‘it became high and exalted’.8 The Ka‘bah is a rectangular building, almost in the centre of the Sacred Mosque (Al-Masjid al-Ḥarām). Its front and back walls, i.e., north-east and south-west, are each 40 feet (12 metres) in length, and the two side-walls 35 feet (10·5m) each, the height being 50 feet (15m). The four walls of the Ka‘bah are covered with a black curtain called Kiswa (lit., clothing). The four corners of the Ka‘bah are known by different names, being named after Iraq (north corner), Yaman (south), Shām or Syria (west), and Ḥajar al-Aswad, the Black Stone (east). The door of the Ka‘bah is in the north-east wall, about seven feet (two metres) from the ground, not in the middle of the wall but nearer the Black Stone which is in the east corner. When the Ka‘bah is opened, a stair-case is placed in front of it to enable the visitors to reach the entrance. Outside the building is an open space, called al-Ḥijr (lit., ‘prohibited’), marked by a semi-circular wall three feet (about one metre) high, running opposite the north-west wall of the Ka‘bah, the two ends of this wall being about six feet (1·8m) distant from the north and west corners of the Ka‘bah, and the central part about 37 feet (11m) from the wall. For the purpose of making circuits, al-Ḥijr is included in the building. In the east corner at the height of about five feet (1·5m) is the Ḥajar al-Aswad (meaning ‘the Black Stone’) built into the wall. It is of a reddish black colour, about eight inches (20cm) in diameter, and is now broken into pieces held together by a silver band. The Maqām Ibrāhīm must also be mentioned in connection with the Ka‘bah. It means ‘the place of Abraham’, and the name is given to a very small building within the Sacred Mosque, about five feet (1·5m) square, supported on six columns eight feet (2·4m) high. This name, handed down from antiquity, is a decided proof of the connection of Abraham with the Ka‘bah, and attention is drawn to this in the Holy Quran in 97. But in 125, it refers to the Sacred House itself. The Ka‘bah is stated in the Holy Quran to be “the first House [of Divine worship] appointed for mankind” (96). In one place it is called the “Ancient House” (229). It is also called the “Sacred House” (97, 137); in other words, a place whose sanctity must not be violated. There is nothing in the Quran or the Hadith to show when and by whom the Ka‘bah was first built, but it is said to have been rebuilt by Abraham and Ishmael, being already there when Abraham left Ishmael in the wilderness of Arabia,9 along with the baby’s mother Hagar. It appears from this that Ishmael had been purposely left near the Sacred House; it was, in fact, under a Divine commandment that Abraham took this step, as stated in a report in Bukhari.10 It would seem that the Ka‘bah was then in a demolished condition and was afterwards, when Ishmael grew to manhood, rebuilt by Abraham and Ishmael as stated in the Quran in 127. The report cited above narrates these events at length. Besides being in a ruined condition, it seems to have had idols placed in it and Abraham was required to purify it of these, as the Quran tells us.11 The Ka‘bah was again rebuilt by the Quraish when the Holy Prophet was a young man, and he personally took part in its building, carrying stones on his shoulders. It remained as it was built by the Quraish until the time of Abdullah ibn Zubair (d. 692 C.E.), when the building having been damaged by the Umayyad army which had besieged Makkah, Abdullah decided to rebuild it, instead of repairing it, including the open space of Ḥijr in the building itself. But after the fall of Abdullah, Hajjaj ibn Yusuf (d. 714 C.E.) again rebuilt it on the foundations of the structure erected by the Quraish. And the building today rests on the same foundations. The Ka‘bah stands in the centre of an area known as al-Masjid al-Ḥarām or the Sacred Mosque, the famous mosque of Makkah. The name is met with in pre-Islamic literature. In the Holy Quran this name occurs in revelations of the early Makkah period, as in 11. The area of the Sacred Mosque contains, besides the Ka‘bah, the Maqām Ibrāhīm and the building over the fountain of Zamzam. The Sacred Mosque was the centre of all administrative activities before Islam, as within it was situated the Makkan Council Hall (Dār al-Nadwah) where all important matters regarding the welfare of the people were settled. Since the advent of Islam, the Sacred Mosque has been the pivot of the intellectual activities of Makkah, and the whole Muslim world looks upon it as its central point. Ancient origin of the Ka‘bah and the pilgrimage The sacredness of the territory around Makkah and the fact of the Ka‘bah being the centre of pilgrimage can only have come down from time immemorial, for there is no tradition or record showing that it was introduced at any time within historical memory. Some of the ceremonial is undoubtedly due to Abraham, as for instance the running between Safa and Marwah which is in commemoration of Hagar’s running to and fro to seek water for the baby Ishmael, or the sacrifice which is in commemoration of Abraham’s endeavour to obey the Divine commandment which, he thought, meant the sacrifice of Ishmael. The circumambulation of the Ka‘bah, however, must have existed before Abraham. But all the main features of the pilgrimage, as existing at the advent of Prophet Muhammad, were undoubtedly based on the authority of Abraham. According to the statement of the Holy Quran, the order was given to Abraham and Ishmael: “And when We pointed to Abraham the place of the House, saying: Do not set up any partner with Me, and purify My House for those who make circuits and stand to pray and bow and prostrate themselves. And proclaim to mankind the Pilgrimage…” — 2227 Thus Abraham not only rebuilt the Ka‘bah and purified it of all traces of idolatry, but he also enjoined ḥajj with its main features, which were therefore based on Divine revelation. Abraham and Ishmael are spoken of in 128 as praying to God to show them their “ways of devotions (manāsik)”. And it was by Divine revelation that Prophet Muhammad was led to adopt them. The only change introduced into the features of the pilgrimage, after Abraham, seems to have been the placing of idols in the Ka‘bah and other important places. The Ka‘bah itself had within it 360 idols, all of which were thrown out by the Holy Prophet at the conquest of Makkah. Some other reforms were also made. For instance, the tribes of Quraish and Kananah used to think it beneath their dignity to join other pilgrims in going forth to the plain of Arafat. This distinction was evidently an innovation on the part of the more powerful tribes; and as Islam tolerated no distinctions, they were ordered to go forth to Arafat along with the others. Another change was the prohibition to go naked while making circuits round the Ka‘bah.12 Asceticism combined with secularism Islam discourages asceticism in all its aspects. Yet it lays the greatest stress upon the spiritual development of man, and in its four main institutions, i.e., prayer, zakāt, fasting and ḥajj, it introduces workable ascetic formulae into daily life — an asceticism which is quite in keeping with the secular side of life. The five daily prayers require the sacrifice of a small part of a person’s time and, without in any way interfering with his everyday life, enable him to realize the Divine that is within him. The institution of zakāt demands the giving up of a small portion of his wealth without interfering with his right to property. Fasting requires the giving up of food and drink but not in such a manner as to make one unfit for carrying on regular work or business. It is only in ḥajj that asceticism assumes a marked form, for the pilgrim is required not only to give up his regular work for a number of days for the sake of the journey to Makkah, but he must, in addition, give up many other amenities of life, and live more or less, the life of an ascetic. The ḥajj is, however, a function which generally comes only once in a lifetime, and, therefore, while leading a person through the highest spiritual experience, it does not interfere in any appreciable degree with the regular course of his life. Levelling influence of the pilgrimage No other institution in the world has the wonderful influence of the ḥajj in levelling all distinctions of race, colour and rank. Not only do people of all races and all countries meet together before the Holy House of God as His servants, as members of one Divine family, but they are clad in one dress — in two white sheets — and there remains nothing to distinguish the high from the low. There is a vast concourse of human beings, all clad in one dress, all moving in one way, all having but one word to speak, labbaika Allāhumma labbaika, meaning here are we, O Allah! here are we in Your august presence. It is ḥajj alone that brings into the domain of practicality what would otherwise seem impossible, namely, that all people, to whatever class or country they belong, should speak one language and wear one dress. Thus is every Muslim made to pass once in his life through that narrow gate of equality which leads to broad brotherhood. All human beings are equal in birth and death; they all come into life in one and the same way, and all pass out of it in one and the same way, but ḥajj is the only occasion on which they are taught how to live alike, how to act alike and how to feel alike. The description of ḥajj usually takes notice only of its outward actions, without trying to discover their real significance and inner value. The details of ḥajj will be discussed later on, but looking broadly at the scene at Makkah during the days of the pilgrimage, one is struck in the first place by the unity which is achieved among the discordant elements of humanity. Deeper than that, however, lies another value of ḥajj, and this is the higher spiritual experience which is made possible by this unique assemblage of human beings, the experience of drawing nearer and nearer to God till man feels that all those veils which keep him away from God are entirely removed and he is standing in the Divine presence. It is true that God does not live in Makkah, nor is the Ka‘bah the House of God in a material sense; true, too, that a Muslim is taught to hold communion with God in a remote corner, in solitude, in the dead of nights, and thus all alone he goes through the experience of drawing nearer to God; but there is yet a higher spiritual experience to which he can attain in that vast concourse of people assembled in the plain of Arafat. Every member of this great assemblage sets out from his home with that object in view. He discards all those comforts of life which act as a veil against the inner sight. He is required to put on the simplest dress, to avoid all talk of an amorous nature and all kinds of disputes, and to undergo all the privations entailed by an arduous journey to a distant place like Arabia, so that he may be able to concentrate all his meditation on the Divine Being. The comforts of life are undoubtedly a veil which shut out the other world from human sight, and sufferings and privations certainly make a person turn to God. To concentrate all one’s ideas on God, not in solitude but in the company of others, is thus the object of ḥajj. A man may have the company of his wife and yet he must not have amorous talk with her; he may be in the company of his adversary, yet he is not allowed to have any quarrel with him; and all this that he may have a higher spiritual experience, the spiritual experience not of the hermit who is cut off from the world, not of the devotee holding communion with God in the corner of solitude, but of the man living in the world, in the company of his wife, his friends and his foes. The higher significance of one’s spiritual experience in an assemblage is evident from another point of view as well. The company of a person who is inspired by similar feelings and who is undergoing a similar experience would undoubtedly give additional force to the spiritual experience of each one of such companions. Take the case of hundreds of thousands of people, all inspired by the one idea of feeling the presence of the Divine Being, all concentrating their minds on the One Supreme Being Who for the time is their sole object; and add to this the mighty effect of the outward unity of them all, clad in the same two sheets, crying in one language what is understood by all, labbaika Allāhumma labbaika — “Here are we, O Allah! here are we in Your august presence” (known as the talbiyah). Their appearance, as well as the words which are on their lips, show that they are standing in the Divine presence, and are so engrossed in the contemplation of the Divine Being that they have lost all ideas of self and the Divine presence is all in all to them. God is surely not in Makkah to the exclusion of other places, yet that vast assemblage at Makkah sees Him and feels His presence as if He is actually there in their very midst. Such is the higher experience of the pilgrims, gathered together in one place. On whom is pilgrimage obligatory? Ḥajj is obligatory on every adult, only once in his life, and its performance more often is voluntary.13 The obligation to perform the ḥajj is further subject to the condition that one is able to undertake a journey to Makkah: “And pilgrimage to the House is a duty which people owe to Allah — whoever can find a way to it.” — 97 The ability to undertake the journey depends on various circumstances. There may be a physical disability rendering one unable to bear the hardships of the long journey. For instance, a very aged man was deemed to be exempt from the obligation.14 Or, the disability may be due to financial reasons, as when a person has not got sufficient provisions for the journey as well as for the dependents whom he leaves behind. The condition of taking sufficient provisions for the journey is laid down in the Holy Quran: “And make provision for yourselves, the best provision being to keep one’s duty.” — 197 Danger to life may also be a reason for freeing a person from the obligation of ḥajj. The Holy Prophet himself and many of his Companions could not perform a pilgrimage after the flight to Madinah, because their lives would not have been safe at Makkah. And when ultimately the Prophet undertook a pilgrimage (‘umrah) with about 1,400 Companions in 6 A.H., he was not allowed by the Quraish to proceed beyond Hudaibiyah and had to come back without performing it. The word ‘umrah means ‘paying a visit’ to a place, and in the terminology of Islam it means a visit to the Ka‘bah. It differs from ḥajj in two respects. In the first place, ḥajj can only be performed at the fixed time, while ‘umrah may be performed at any time. The months of Shawwāl, Dhī-qa‘d and ten days of Dhi-l-Ḥijjah, these being the 10th, 11th and 12th months of the Muslim calendar, are particularly spoken of as months of ḥajj,15 so that one can enter into the state of iḥrām for ḥajj only in these months, while the actual devotions of ḥajj are limited from the 8th to the 13th of Dhi-l-Ḥijjah. Secondly, the going to Arafat and the assembling there is dispensed with in the case of ‘umrah, while it is an essential part of ḥajj. Another difference is that the sacrifice of an animal as the concluding act is essential to ḥajj but not so in the case of ‘umrah. The ‘umrah may be performed separately, or along with ḥajj, when it is like a parallel devotion to the latter. Though ḥajj is spoken of more often in the Holy Quran, yet there is an express injunction to accomplish both: “And accomplish the pilgrimage (ḥajj) and the visit (‘umrah) for Allah.” — 196 Hadith also speaks of the obligatory nature of the ‘umrah.16 There are two ways in which ḥajj may be combined with ‘umrah. One is that the pilgrim should enter a state of iḥrām in the months of ḥajj and get out of that state after the performance of the ‘umrah, again entering into a state of iḥrām in the days of ḥajj. This is known as tamattu‘ or ‘profiting’ because between the ‘umrah and the ḥajj the pilgrim profits by living in his ordinary condition and is not bound by the strict rules of iḥrām. For this he is required to make a sacrifice, or fast for three days in the ḥajj and seven days after returning from ḥajj, as laid down in the Quran, 196. The other way, known as qirān or ‘uniting together’, is to enter a state of iḥrām in the months of ḥajj and remain in the same state until both ‘umrah and ḥajj have been performed. With the two differences pointed out earlier, whatever is said below concerning ḥajj applies also to ‘umrah. The state into which the pilgrims are required to put themselves on the occasion of ḥajj or ‘umrah is called iḥrām (from ḥaram meaning ‘prevention’ or ‘forbidding’), or entering upon a state in which a particular dress is put on and certain acts, ordinarily lawful, are forbidden. The iḥrām dress, according to Hadith reports,17 consists of two seamless sheets, a sheet reaching from the navel to below the knees and a sheet which covers the upper part of the body. Both these sheets must preferably be white. As regards women, they can wear their ordinary clothes, and Aishah, wife of the Holy Prophet, held that there was no harm if a woman pilgrim wore cloth dyed black or red or wore boots. She further held that a woman should not cover her face or wear a veil in iḥrām.18 Change of clothes during iḥrām is not forbidden. But even women must wear simple dress. The object is to remove all distinctions of rank, and this is done in the case of men by making them all wear two seamless sheets, and in the case of women by requiring them to give up the veil which was a sign of rank. It also gives a practical lesson in simple living. Before donning the iḥrām dress, the pilgrim must take a bath and utter talbiyah (see below), facing the Qiblah. The practice is also to say two rak‘ahs of prayer, but all that is related of the Holy Prophet is that he entered a state of iḥrām after saying two rak‘ahs of the early afternoon prayer. During the state of iḥrām, and even before that, from the beginning of the journey to Makkah, no amorous talk is allowed: “So whoever determines to perform pilgrimage in them [i.e., in the months of the ḥajj], there shall be no amorous speech, nor abusing nor altercation in the pilgrimage.” — 197 Sexual intercourse is therefore also forbidden; nor is the use of scent allowed in the state of iḥrām, nor shaving, nor the paring of nails. The cares of the body are sacrificed for a few days to devote greater attention to the cares of the soul, and this is a practical lesson which serves a useful purpose on many occasions in one’s life. The state of iḥrām may be entered upon at any time during the months of ḥajj, after the journey is undertaken; but as it would be too inconvenient to remain in this state for a long time, the law has fixed certain places on the different routes to Makkah, on reaching which the pilgrims enter upon a state of iḥrām. Such a place is called mīqāt meaning ‘an appointed time’, or ‘a place in which a certain action is appointed to be performed’. It is also called a muhill which signifies ‘the place of raising voices with talbiyah’. The talbiyah consists in saying aloud labbaika Allāhumma labbaika, meaning “Here am I, O Allah! here am I in Your august presence”.19 The full talbiyah runs thus: Labbaika Allāhumma labbaika, lā sharīka la-ka labbaika; inn-al-ḥamda w-al-ni‘mata la-ka w-al-mulka la-ka, la sharīka la-ka. which means: “Here am I, O Allah, here am I in Your august presence; there is no associate with You, here am I; surely all praise is Yours and all favours are Yours and the kingdom is Yours, there is no associate with You”.20 As soon as the state of iḥrām is entered upon, with the determination to devote as little attention to the cares of the body as possible, the spiritual aspect of ḥajj is brought to mind by all the pilgrims crying aloud that they are in the august Divine presence. The place where iḥrām is entered upon is, therefore, also the place where voices are raised aloud for the remembrance of God, and the mīqāt, is, for that reason, also called the muhill. The word ṭawāf, in the technical language of Islam, means making circumambulation of the Ka‘bah. The command to perform it is contained in the Holy Quran in a Makkah revelation: “…and let them go round the Ancient House.” — 229 In the devotional acts of the pilgrimage, ṭawāf occupies the most important place, being the first act of the pilgrim on his arrival at Makkah and his last act when he leaves the holy place. It is reported that the Holy Prophet “made circumambulations on his first arrival in ḥajj and ‘umrah, then offered two rak‘ahs, then went to and fro between Safa and Marwah”.21 The ṭawāf is performed by going round the Ka‘bah, as near the walls of the sacred building as possible, but on the north-western side keeping close to the small semicircular wall bounding the Ḥijr. Before the ṭawāf, it is necessary to make ablution,22 if possible to take a bath. Men and women perform ṭawāf together, the women keeping apart from the men, but women are not allowed to go inside the Ka‘bah until it is emptied of men.23 The obligatory ṭawāf is made on the day of sacrifices, the 10th of Dhi-i-Ḥijjah,24 though generally a ṭawāf is also made on arrival and on departure. The ṭawāf begins at the Black Stone, which is kissed,25 but even the making of a sign over it is sufficient.26 In going round, the Ka‘bah is kept to the left, and seven rounds are made in all. The first three rounds are made at a fast pace and the remaining four at an ordinary pace.27 But, if necessary, the ṭawāf may be performed while one is riding on the back of an animal.28 The doing of an act or speaking, if there is necessity for it, is not forbidden.29 Prayers or supplications may be addressed to God in the course of ṭawāf. Menstruating women should postpone the ṭawāf, and the running between Safa and Marwah, for the duration of the menses. Reference has already been made to the Ḥajar al-Aswad or the Black Stone. There is not the least indication to show where this stone came from and when it was placed there, but as it was there before the advent of Islam and was even kissed, it must have been there at least from the time of Abraham, as the main features of the ḥajj are traceable to that patriarch. Yet it is remarkable that though the Ka‘bah had 360 idols within its walls before the coming of Islam, the Black Stone was never regarded as an idol by the pre-Islamic Arabs, nor was it ever worshipped by them like the idols of the Ka‘bah. Among the innumerable objects which were taken for gods by the pre-Islamic Arabs, the Ka‘bah and the Black Stone are the only two which are conspicuous by their absence, notwithstanding the reverence which the Arab mind had for them before Islam. The Ka‘bah was known by the name Bait Allah or House of God, and there was a belief prevalent among them that no enemy could destroy it. Yet, despite all this reverence, the Ka‘bah was never worshipped. It was the idols that were worshipped, and not the Ka‘bah; and the same is true of the Black Stone. It was kissed but it was never taken for a god. And Muslims were so averse to idolatry that when they saw two idols, one on each hill of the Safa and the Marwah, they refused to make the run between these two mountains, until a verse was revealed saying: “there is no blame on him [i.e., the pilgrim]” for going between them (158). Evidently they had not the same scruples about the Ka‘bah as the idols in the Ka‘bah were shut up in the building, while those on the Safa and the Marwah were not only exposed to view but even touched by the pilgrims. If the idea of idolatry had been connected in the least with the circuits round the Ka‘bah and the kissing of the Black Stone, Muslims would never have resorted to those practices. The Holy Prophet once made circuits of the Ka‘bah on the back of a camel; he also touched the Black Stone with the rod in his hand; all of which goes to show that Muslims never entertained the idea of the worship of these things, nor was their attitude towards them at any time that of the worshipper towards the object of his worship. This shows the absurdity of the criticism that the ṭawāf or the kissing of the Black Stone are remnants of pre-Islamic idolatry which were retained in Islam. Significance underlying ṭawāf of the Ka‘bah During the ṭawāf of the Ka‘bah, a Muslim feels himself in the presence of the One God, crying aloud: labbaika Allāhumma labbaika, lā sharīka la-ka, labbaika — “Here am I, O Allah! here am I in Your presence, there is no associate with You, here am I”. And ṭawāf itself is going round about the House which is an emblem of Divine Unity, the place from which sprang the idea of Divine Unity, the place which would always be the centre for all believers in Divine Unity. All ideas of the pilgrim at that time are concentrated upon one theme, the theme of Divine Unity. The pilgrim forgets everything and remembers only the One God. To him the august Divine presence is all in all. That is the ṭawāf. Significance underlying kissing of the Black Stone That the Ka‘bah was rebuilt by Abraham is an historical fact. That the Black Stone has been there ever since the Ka‘bah has been known to exist, there is not the least reason to doubt. That it was a stone sent down from Paradise, or that it was originally white and became black on account of the sins of men, there is no reliable hadith to indicate. The Black Stone is, in fact, the corner-stone of the Ka‘bah, and stands there only as an emblem, a token that that part of the progeny of Abraham which was rejected by the Israelites was to become the corner-stone of the Kingdom of God. The Psalms contain a clear reference to it: “The stone which the builders rejected has become the chief corner-stone.” 30 Ishmael was looked upon as rejected and the Divine covenant was considered to have been made with the children of Isaac only. That was the Jewish view, and it was due to the fact that Ishmael was placed by Abraham near the Ka‘bah. And again while prophet after prophet appeared among the Israelites, no prophet appeared of the progeny of Ishmael, and hence the Jewish belief that Ishmael was rejected became stronger. Yet it was from the progeny of Ishmael that the Last Prophet, “chief corner-stone” in the words of the Psalmist, was to arise, and the Black Stone, from wherever it was brought, was placed as the corner-stone of the Ka‘bah, as a sign that the rejected Ishmaelites were the real inheritors of the Divine Kingdom. And while David referred to it as “the stone which the builders rejected”, Jesus spoke of it more plainly in the parable of the owner of the vineyard, telling the Israelites that the vineyard, which in the parable stands for the Kingdom of God, would be taken away from them and given to other tenants, that is, to a non-Israelite people: “Have you never read in the Scriptures: ‘The stone which the builders rejected has become the chief cornerstone.…’ … Therefore I say to you, the kingdom of God will be taken from you and given to a nation bearing the fruits of it.” 31 That by the rejected stone in the prophecy was meant a rejected nation is made clear by Jesus Christ. That that rejected nation was no other than the Ishmaelites is borne out by history. And in the whole world there is only this unhewn stone, the stone described in the Bible as “cut out of the mountain without hands”,32 that is the corner-stone of a building which in point of importance stands unique in the world. Sa‘y means ‘running’, and in the Islamic terminology it signifies the running of the pilgrims between the two little hills situated near Makkah, called the Safa (Ṣafā) and the Marwah. In the devotional acts of ḥajj, it occupies a place next to the ṭawāf. In fact, in the case of ‘umrah, the minor pilgrimage as it is called, ṭawāf and sa‘y are the only functions of importance, and the ‘umrah therefore ends with the sa‘y unless of course there is an animal to be sacrificed when ‘umrah alone is to be performed. The sa‘y is spoken of in the Holy Quran: “The Safa and the Marwah are truly among the signs of Allah; so whoever makes a pilgrimage to the House or pays a visit to it, there is no blame on him if he goes round them.” — 158 The word used in the Quran for “he goes round” is not sa‘y but a derivative of ṭawāf. These two hills were the scene of Hagar’s running to and fro in quest of water for her baby Ishmael, when she was left there by Abraham.33 They have thus become monuments of patience under the hardest trials, and it is in connection with the teaching of patience that the ṭawāf of Safa and Marwah is spoken of in the Quran, as the preceding verses 153–157 show. The ḥajj proper — march to Mina Ṭawāf and sa‘y are the individual acts of every pilgrim when he first arrives at Makkah, whether he intends to perform the ‘umrah or the ḥajj. In case it is simply an ‘umrah, or ‘umrah to be followed by a break before the ḥajj, the pilgrim then emerges from the state of iḥrām. The ḥajj proper begins on the 8th of Dhi-l-Ḥijjah when the whole body of pilgrims moves together. The pilgrims who had got out of the state of iḥrām after ‘umrah again enter into this state on the morning of the 8th, and so also do the residents of Makkah who wish to perform the pilgrimage.34 The whole body of pilgrims then moves to Mina, a plain which is midway between Arafat and Makkah, about four miles (6·5 km) distant from the Holy City. During the ḥajj proper, the pilgrims’ longest, and in fact the only, stay is in Mina. Mina must be reached before noon, so that the early afternoon prayer, Ẓuhr, may be said there. The night is also passed in Mina, and next day, the 9th Dhi-l-Ḥijjah, at midday the pilgrims move to the plain of Arafat. ‘Arafa or ‘Arafāt is the name of the plain which is situated to the east of Makkah at a distance of about nine miles (14 km). It is derived from ‘arf or ma‘rifah, which means ‘knowledge of a thing’, and ma‘rifah especially means the knowledge of God. The name given to this plain seems to be based on the fact that here people assembled together, as equals in all respects, are best able to know their God. The Jabal al-Raḥmah (lit., the mountain of mercy), on which is the pulpit from which the sermon is delivered, is situated to the east, sixty steps of stone leading to the top. Leaving Mina at noon on the 9th Dhi-l-Ḥijjah, the pilgrims reach Arafat in time to say the early and late afternoon prayers combined, after which the Imam delivers a sermon from the pulpit on the Jabal al-Raḥmah. The pilgrims’ stay in Arafat lasts only from afternoon till sunset, but so important is the place it occupies in the devotional acts of ḥajj, that ḥajj is considered to have been performed if the pilgrim reaches Arafat in time on the 9th Dhi-l-Ḥijjah, but if he is unable to join, the ḥajj is not performed. The whole time of the pilgrims, from afternoon till sunset, is passed in glorifying God and crying aloud labbaika Allāhumma labbaika. After sunset the pilgrims leave Arafat, and stop at Muzdalifah (from zalf meaning ‘nearness’), which is so called because by staying there nearness to God is sought. In the Holy Quran it is called the Sacred, or Holy, Monument (al-Mash‘ar al-Ḥarām) and the remembrance of God at that place is specially enjoined: “So when you press on from Arafat, remember Allah near the Holy Monument, and remember Him as He has guided you, though before that you were certainly in error.” — 198 On reaching Muzdalifah, the pilgrims say their sunset and night prayers, combining the two.35 There the night is passed, and then after saying the morning prayer at an early hour the pilgrims leave for Mina. Those who are infirm are allowed to leave even before the morning prayer.36 Thus the pilgrims again reach Mina on the morning of 10th Dhi-l-Ḥijjah, which is called yaum al-naḥr, ‘the day of sacrifices’, being the day which is celebrated as the ‘Īd al-Aḍḥā all over the Muslim world. After saying the ‘Īd prayers in Mina, the animals are sacrificed, the pilgrims then return and perform the ṭawāf of the Ka‘bah. With this, the pilgrim emerges from the state of iḥrām, by having his head shaven or his hair clipped. But before the sacrifice there is another small act of devotion called the ramy al-jimār, which will be described presently. Though the pilgrim leaves the state of iḥrām, yet he must return to Mina again, for it is in Mina that the ḥajj ends. Days of tashrīq (Ayyām al-tashrīq) The pilgrims are required to stay in Mina for three or at least two days after the yaum al-naḥr, that is, on the 11th, 12th and 13th Dhi-l-Ḥijjah. This stay is required by an express injunction of the Holy Quran, where the ending of the devotional acts of ḥajj is thus spoken of: “And remember Allah during the appointed days. Then whoever hastens off in two days, it is no sin for him; and whoever stays behind, it is no sin for him, for one who keeps his duty. And keep your duty to Allah, and know that you shall be gathered together to Him.” — 203 The “appointed days” referred to here are the two or three days that are spent in Mina after the yaum al-naḥr, and they are known as the days of tashrīq. They may have been so named because the animals were sacrificed after the rising of the sun, which is one of the meanings of tashrīq.37 It may be because tashrīq also means ‘going east’, and Mina lies to the east of Makkah; or it may have a deeper spiritual significance in that it also means being beautiful and shining in the face.38 During the last day of ḥajj, the 10th Dhi-l-Ḥijjah, and the three tashrīq days the pilgrims are required to cast stones at certain fixed places. This is known as ramy al-jimār, ‘throwing of (small) stones’. Each of the three places in Mina, where stones are thrown, is also called Jamrah, because of the throwing or the collection of stones there. The practice of the Holy Prophet is thus described. On the yaum al-naḥr he threw stones in the forenoon, and in tashrīq days in the afternoon.39 The number of stones thrown at each Jamrah was seven, and every stone thrown was accompanied by saying of Allāhu Akbar.40 In the ḥajj many pre-Islamic practices were retained, but as has been shown above, the origin of these practices is traceable to Abraham, and every one of them carries with it a spiritual significance. The whole atmosphere of ḥajj is a demonstration of the greatness of God and the equality of man. The ḥajj is, as it were, the final stage in man’s spiritual progress. Yet in spiritual advancement the temptations of real life must not be forgotten, and the throwing of stones draws attention to the temptations of the Evil one. It teaches the lesson that man must learn to hate evil and that the Evil one should be kept distant a stone’s throw. The nearer a person gets to temptations, the more likely he is to yield, and the best way of avoiding them is to keep them at a distance. The throwing of stones is, moreover, a reminder of the spiritual fight which man must wage against evil. Other activities allowed in pilgrimage Though ḥajj is meant to bring about an ascetic experience in man’s practical life, yet so closely combined are the ascetic and secular experiences in Islam that the utilizing of the pilgrimage to Makkah for secular purposes is not excluded. The Holy Quran, while enjoining the making of sufficient provision for the ḥajj journey, adds: “It is no sin for you that you seek the bounty of your Lord.” — 2:198 The seeking of bounty is accepted here by all commentators as meaning the seeking of increase in one’s wealth by means of trade in the pilgrimage season. The Quran thus not only allows the carrying on of trade in the pilgrimage season, but in a way recommends it by calling it a “bounty of your Lord”. If even trading is allowed in the pilgrimage season, this great assemblage of Muslims from all quarters of the world may also be made the occasion of other advantages of a material or cultural nature, and it should serve the purpose of unifying the Muslim world and removing misunderstanding between nation and nation. World-wide conferences are held on many occasions, and this should, in the new conditions of the world, be a regular feature of the ḥajj, and the best minds among the various nations should on this occasion discuss all problems affecting the Muslim world, not the least important of which is the advancement of Islam itself. Go to: List of Contents • Previous / Next (15. Jihād)
Notes to Chapter 14
Editor’s general note: The descriptions of the Ka‘bah and various other buildings and locations associated with the pilgrimage given in this chapter, and also the movements of the pilgrims as explained here, are according to how these used to be traditionally. In recent years, these have changed in many ways due to modernization of buildings and introduction of new facilities to cater for the hugely increased number of pilgrims.
1. Raghib’s Mufradāt. 2. A Dictionary of Islam by T.P. Hughes under the entry Ka‘bah, p. 258, col. 2, and the Encyclopaedia of Islam, first edition, article on Ḥadjdj by A.J. Wensinck, v. 2, p. 199, col. 1. 3. Bukhari, book 8: ‘Prayer’, ch. 31, h. 399. 4. Bukhari, book 2: ‘Faith’, ch. 30, h. 40; book 8: ‘Prayer’, ch. 31, h. 399; book 65: ‘Commentary on the Quran’, ch. 12, h. 4486 (on Surah 2, v. 144). 5. For ‘umrah see pages here–here. 6. Bukhari, book 64: ‘Military expeditions’, ch. 2, h. 3950. 7. The previous verse contains an address to Abraham: “And when We pointed to Abraham the place of the House…” (226). Therefore, the words “Proclaim to mankind the Pilgrimage” are generally understood to have been addressed to Abraham. Even if this view is accepted, it is equally an address to the Holy Prophet, for, as the context shows, the mention of Abraham is only by way of parenthesis; and inasmuch as the pilgrimage is an ordinance common to both the Abrahamic and the Islamic faiths, the address is equally to both prophets. 8. Lane’s Lexicon and Nihāyah of Ibn Athir. 9. The Quran, 127 and 137. 10. Bukhari, book 60: ‘Prophets’, ch. 9, h. 3364. 11. The Quran 125 and 226. 12. Bukhari, book 25: ‘Pilgrimage’, ch. 67, h. 1622. 13. Abu Dawud, book 11: ‘Rites of Pilgrimage (Manāsik)’, ch. 1, h. 1721. 14. Bukhari, book 25: ‘Pilgrimage’, ch. 1, h. 1513. 15. See the Quran 197 and Bukhari, book 25: ‘Pilgrimage’, ch. 33, ch. heading. 16. Bukhari, book 26: ‘‘Umrah’, ch. 1, h. 1773 and ch. 4, h. 1782. According to one hadith, ‘umrah is not obligatory; see Tirmidhi, book 9: ‘Pilgrimage’, ch. 88, h. 931 (DS: book 7). But anyone who performs the ḥajj can easily perform the ‘umrah. 17. See Bukhari, book 3: ‘Knowledge’, ch. 53, h. 134; and book 25: ‘Pilgrimage’, ch. 23, h. 1545. 18. Bukhari, book 25: ‘Pilgrimage’, ch. 23, ch. heading. 19. Editor’s Note: This expression does not indicate whether the speaker is singular or plural, and thus it can mean “here are we” or “here am I”. 20. Bukhari, book 25: ‘Pilgrimage’, ch. 26, h. 1549. 21. Ibid., ch. 63, h. 1614–1617. 22. Ibid., ch. 78, h. 1641–1642. 23. Ibid., ch. 64, h. 1618. 24. Ibid., ch. 129, h. 1732–1733. 25. Ibid., ch. 56, h. 1603. 26. Ibid., ch. 61, h. 1612. 27. Ibid., ch. 63, h. 1616–1617. 28. Ibid., ch. 74, h. 1632–1633. 29. Ibid., chs. 65 and 66, h. 1620–1621. 30. Psalms, 1122. 31. Matthew, 24243. 32. Daniel, 45. 33. Bukhari, book 60: ‘Prophets’, ch. 9, h. 3364–3365. 34. Bukhari, book 25: ‘Pilgrimage’, ch. 82, ch. heading. 35. Ibid., ch. 96, h. 1973–1674. 36. Ibid., ch. 98, h. 1676–1681. 37. Nihāyah of Ibn Athīr. 38. Lane’s Lexicon. 39. Bukhari, book 25: ‘Pilgrimage’, ch. 134, ch. heading. 40. Ibid., ch. 138, h. 1750. |