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18. Food, drink and cleanliness

Islam promotes cleanliness

In addition to rules and regulations for the perfection of self and for the better relations of man with man, there are certain restrictive regula­tions of a general nature the object of which is to teach people the ways of clean living. These regulations relate to foods, drinks, dress and a num­ber of other things, and have both a physical and a moral value. It is a recognized fact that the food which a person eats, or even his clothing, affects not only his constitution but also the building up of his character, and hence in a complete code of life it was necessary that people should be taught ways of clean eating, clean drinking, clean dressing, clean appearance and clean habits of all kinds. These regulations are sometimes obligatory but very often of a recommendatory nature.

General rules regarding food

The first general rule regarding foods, and which applies to drink as well, is laid down in the following words in the Holy Quran:

“O people, eat the lawful and good things from what is in the earth, and do not follow the footsteps of the devil. Surely he is an open enemy to you.” — 2:168

The Arabic word for lawful is ḥalāl, and that for good things is ṭayyib. The first condition therefore is that the food and drink made use of should be lawful. Law­ful things are not only those which the law has not declared to be forbid­den, but even unforbidden things become unlawful if they are acquired unlawfully, for example, by theft, cheating, bribery, etc. The other condition is that it should be ṭayyib or “good”. The word ṭayyib carries the significance of pleasant, delightful, delicious or sweet, and pure or clean.1 An impure or unclean thing or a thing which offends good taste should, there­fore, not be used as an eatable. The same rule applies to drinks.

By adding the injunction “do not follow the footsteps of the devil”, the real object of the prohibition is made clear. The Quran recognizes some sort of relation between the physical and the spi­ritual conditions of man, and there is not the least doubt that food plays an important part in the formation of character.

Moderation recommended

The above rule, to avoid unlawful and unclean things, is supplemented by two other equally important directions of a general nature. The first is an interdiction against excess:

“…and eat and drink and do not be extravagant; surely He does not love the extravagant.” — 7:31

Immoderation may either be in the taking of diet, when one over-loads the stomach with food,2 or it may be in the taking of particular kinds of food. Any food, however good, is injurious to health if taken in excess. Moderation in eating is a guaran­tee of health. And just as overfeeding spoils the system, underfeeding un­dermines health. Hence the direction is given:

“O you who believe, do not forbid the good things which Allah has made lawful for you, nor exceed the limits.” —5:87

In these words, all self-denying practices, by which a person either deprives himself of the necessary quantity of food, or of certain kinds of food, are denounced. Good things which are helpful in build­ing up the system should not be denied.

Prohibited foods

Four things are expressly prohibited in the Holy Quran:

“O you who believe, eat of the good things that We have provided you with, and give thanks to Allah if He it is Whom you serve. He has forbidden you only what dies of itself, and blood, and the flesh of swine, and that on which any other name than that of Allah has been invoked. Then whoever is driven by necessity, not desiring, nor exceeding the limit, no sin is upon him. Surely Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.” — 2:172–173

The same pro­hibition had already been revealed in 16:115, while the Holy Prophet was yet at Makkah, in nearly the same words, whereas in 6:145, another Makkah revelation, reasons are added for the prohibition, and 5:3, which is the latest revelation on the point, adds several things by way of expla­nation.

The prohibited foods thus are:

1. That which dies of itself. According to 5:3, the following are in­cluded:

“the strangled (animal), and that beaten to death, and that killed by a fall, and that killed by goring with the horn, and what wild beasts have eaten”.

The flesh is prohibited, but the skin may be used. The Holy Prophet saw a dead goat of which the skin had not been removed and said that what was unlawful thereof was the flesh, and that there was no harm in profiting by its skin.3 From this may be concluded that other parts, such as bones, may also be made use of. “That which died of itself and that which was torn by beasts” were forbidden by the law of Moses also.4

2. Blood, explained as “blood poured forth” in 6:145. This was also forbidden by the law of Moses.5

3. Flesh of swine. This was also forbidden by the law of Moses.6 Jesus Christ, like a true Jew, seems to have held the swine in ab­horrence:

“nor cast your pearls before swine”.7

He is also reported to have cast out a number of unclean spirits which he then allowed to go into a herd of swine, causing it to perish thereby.8 This shows that he looked upon the animal as unclean. St. Peter compares sinners who relapse into evil to swine who go again to wallow in the mire after they are washed.9

4. The fourth kind of forbidden food is that over which any other name than that of Allah has been invoked at the time of slaughtering it. In 5:3 “what is sacrificed on stones set up [for idols]” is added, and it evidently comes under this description.

The Quran, in 6:145, speaks of the first three forbidden foods, carrion, blood and pork, as rijs or unclean things, while the fourth, the invocation of other than Allah’s name at the time of slaughtering an animal, is called fisq or a trans­gression of the Divine com­mandment. The reason for this distinction is that there is uncleanness in the case of first three, since they have a perni­cious effect upon the intellectual, the physical or the moral system; while in the fourth case, the spiritual side is affected, as the invocation of other than Allah’s name, or sacrificing for idols, asso­ciates one with idolatry. In this case the thing is not unclean in itself, like blood or carrion or pork; it is forbidden because the use of such food associates the eater of it with idolatry.

Slaughtering of an animal

According to the law of Islam, all animals that are allowed as food must be slaughtered in such a manner that blood flows out. Four veins are cut off in slaughtering an animal: the windpipe, the oesophagus and the two external jugular veins.10 The idea underlying this particular manner of slaughter is causing the blood to flow so that the poisons contained in it should not form part of food. The same appears to be the reason for prohibition of blood as food. Fish or other watergame does not require to be slaughtered, and it is allowed irrespective of who has caught it, Muslim or non-Muslim; so also fish which has been thrown out by the sea or river on dry land or which has been left by the water having receded from it, and which has there­fore died before it is caught, provided it is not spoiled.11

Invoking the name of God on slaughtered animal

It should be further noted that, when an animal is slaughtered, it is necessary that the name of God should be invoked. The Holy Quran lays down plainly:

“And do not eat of that on which Allah’s name has not been men­tioned, and that is surely a transgression.” — 6: 121

Hence it is neces­sary that at the time of slaughtering an animal, the following words should be pronounced: Bismillāh, Allāhu Akbar — “In the name of Allah, Allah is the Greatest of all”.12 This practice is traceable to the Holy Prophet. If the man who slaughters the animal forgets to pronounce these words, the flesh of the animal is allowed,13 but if he omits the words intentionally, there is a difference of opinion. Imam Shafi‘i allows it even in this case against the Hanafi view.14 In slaughtering an animal, any sharp instru­ment may be used which causes the blood to flow, and the flesh of an animal which was slaughtered by a maid with a stone was allowed.15

Thus it is allowed to Muslims to slaughter animals for food, but the condition is here laid down that Allah’s name must be mentioned when the animal is slaughtered. There is no doubt that the taking of a life, even though it be the life of an animal, bespeaks a kind of disregard for life, and it is allowed by God, only because the full physical development of man requires the use of the flesh of animals. Mentioning Allah’s name at the time of slaughter is a reminder that this act is made lawful only by Divine permission, for the attainment of a necessary purpose. The order is based on moral grounds, and as a safeguard against the development of habits of disregard for human life itself, which is a sad aspect of the deve­lop­ment of the material civilization of our day.16

The food of the followers of the Book (Ahl al-Kitāb)17 is expressly allowed in the Quran:

“And the food of those who have been given the Book is lawful for you, and your food is lawful for them.” — 5:5

A Muslim may therefore invite the followers of the Book to his own table and he may eat at their table. But Hadith makes it further clear that the animal slaughtered by the followers of the Book is allowed in this verse. The condition is added that, if the slaughterer is heard uttering a name other than that of God, the flesh is not to be eaten, but if he is not so heard then it is lawful for Muslims to eat it.18 As stated elsewhere, the words Ahl al-Kitāb are applicable to followers of all revealed religions, including the Magi, the Hindus, etc. A certain food (cheese) prepared by the Magi was allowed by the Holy Prophet, though he was told that in its preparation use had been made of what died of itself; and he only said: “Mention the name of Allah over it”.19

The heading of one of Bukhari’s chapters is “Animals slaugh­tered by desert Arabs” (dhabīḥat al-A‘rāb), and under this is mentioned a hadith from Aishah according to which cer­tain people came to the Holy Prophet and enquired of him about meat which was brought to them by other people, about which they did not know whether the name of God had been mentioned over it or not. The Holy Prophet’s reply was:

“Mention the name of Allah over it and eat it.” 20

This gives a wide latitude in doubtful and difficult cases where a Muslim must depend on food provided or prepared by other peo­ple.

Humane treatment of animals21

The Holy Prophet had a tender heart which overflowed with mercy even for animals. It is related that he passed by a camel that had grown extremely lean, so he gave the instruction:

“Be careful of your duty to Allah regarding these dumb animals; ride them while they are in a fit condition, and eat them while they are in a fit condition.” 22

The Holy Prophet also said:

“Whoever tills a field and birds and beasts eat of it, it is a charity.” 23

He spoke of a man who drew water from a well to quench the thirst of a dog as performing a good deed:

“The Messenger of Allah said: ‘While a man was walking he was overcome by thirst, so he went down a well and drank water from it. On coming out of it, he saw a dog pan­t­ing and eating mud because of excessive thirst. The man said, This [dog] is afflicted by the same which afflic­ted me. So he [went down the well,] filled his shoe with water, caught hold of it with his teeth and climbed up and watered the dog. Allah thanked him for his deed and forgave him.’

People asked: ‘O Messenger of Allah, Is there a reward for us in serving the animals?’ He replied: ‘In every animal having a liver fresh with life, there is a reward’.” 24

According to Hadith, the Holy Prophet is said to have “forbidden the shooting of arrows at tied or confined animals” and to have cursed those people who did so. He also cursed the one who cuts off the limbs of a living animal.25

Game

The Holy Quran expressly allows game:

“The good things are allowed to you, and what you have taught the beasts and birds of prey, training them to hunt — you teach them of what Allah has taught you; so eat of what they catch for you and mention the name of Allah over it.” — 5:4

Hadith makes it clear that the name of Allah is to be mentioned when letting off the beast or bird of prey.26 The animal caught may be eat­en even though it is killed by the beast or bird of prey.27 The killing of game by throwing pebbles and hazel-nuts is, however, forbidden.28 Killing it by arrow is allowed,29 since the arrow causes the blood to flow. Game shot with a gun must follow the same rule, but in both cases the Bis­millāh must be uttered before letting off the arrow or firing the gun, and if the game is killed before it is caught and slaughtered, there is no harm. As regards the game of sea or water, it is all considered as slaughtered.30

Prohibitions in Hadith and Jurisprudence

According to Hadith, the Holy Prophet prohibited all beasts of prey with a canine tooth31 and all birds of prey with a claw.32 The tame ass is also prohibited,33 but not the wild ass which is allowed,34 the mule is prohibited but not the horse.35 Other things are mentioned as not prohibited by the Holy Prophet but he did not eat them. To the prohibitions mentioned in Hadith, jurisprudence (Fiqh) adds several more, for example, foxes, elephants, wasps and all insects.36

As shown earlier, among things which are allowed much depends on personal likes and dislikes; a thing which may be good (ṭayyib) as food for one individual or one people may not be so for another. Certain things may be good and even useful as food, but their use might be offensive to others; it was due to this that the Prophet said that whoever ate raw onions and garlic, he should not approach the mosque,37 because the odour would be offensive to others; but there is no harm in taking them in a cooked form,38 or in some other form in which it may not give an offensive odour, or on occasions when one is not likely to appear in public.

Good manners in eating

It is recommended that hands should be washed before the taking of food and after finishing it,39 and that when you begin a meal, you should do so with the pronouncement of Bismillāh, and that when you finish it you should give thanks to God or say al-ḥamdu li-llāh.40 It was the Holy Prophet’s practice to cleanse the mouth with water after taking food.41 There is also a direction to eat with the right hand.42 To blow on food or drink is prohibited.43 Taking of food when in a reclining posture is not recommended,44 nor eating and drinking while standing,45 but Ali reported that he had seen the Holy Prophet drinking water while standing.46 It is also regarded as good manners in eating that you should take only so much in your plate as not to leave anything on it after eating,47 and that you should take a morsel from what lies near your hand.48

Of the Holy Prophet it is related that he would never find fault with the food which he was offered; if he liked it he would eat of it, and if he disliked it he would leave it.49 Feeding the hungry when one sits at a meal is also regarded as good manners in eating.50 Eating and drinking in vessels of silver and gold was prohibited,51 because it is a luxury enjoyed by the rich at the expense of the poor, and is against the democratic spirit of Islam.

Entertainments

For fostering good relations it is recommended that one should have no hesitation in eating at the house of relatives or friends:

“There is no blame on the blind man, nor any blame on the lame, nor blame on the sick, nor on yourselves that you eat in your own houses, or your fathers’ houses, or your mothers’ houses, or your brothers’ houses, or your sisters’ houses, or your paternal uncles’ houses, or your paternal aunts’ houses, or your maternal uncles’ houses, or your maternal aunts’ houses, or houses of which you possess the keys, or your friends’ houses. It is no sin in you that you eat together or separately.” — 24:61

The Arabs had their scruples in eating with the blind, etc., and in this respect they were like many other nations. This verse first removes any such distinction as to whom one may eat with. Then the reference to near relatives and close friends apparently shows that a certain degree of familiarity with them is recommended so that one may eat at another’s house if the time has arrived for a meal, though he may not have been invited beforehand. Lastly, the verse speaks of eating together or separately as one likes. Islam thus allows the individual a great latitude in this respect.

Stress is laid on the acceptance of an invitation to a feast:

“The Prophet said, When a person is invited and he does not accept [or reply], he disobeys Allah and His Messenger.” 52

Entertain­ment of guests is also emphasized.53 It is stated that when the Holy Prophet came to Madinah, he sacrificed a camel or a cow to feast his friends;54 from this it is concluded that when a person comes home from a journey, he should entertain his friends at meals. Inviting the followers of other religions, and accepting their invitation, is expressly spoken of in the Holy Quran:

“And the food of those who have been given the Book is lawful for you and your food is lawful for them.” — 5:5

Hadith recommends social functions in which people should eat together: “Gather together at your meals and mention Allah’s name on it, you will be blessed therein”.55 The levelling influence of Islam asserts itself even in eating, and it is recommended that a servant may be seated at the same table as his master, or at least he should be given a part of the food which the master eats.56 Islam therefore allows no dis­tinction between superiors and subordinates in sitting at the same table at meals, as in standing in the same row at prayers. In its physical as well as spiritual aspects, it is essentially the religion of equality.

Drinks — intoxicating liquors

The drink prohibited in the Holy Quran is described under the name khamr. This word indicates veiling, covering or concealing, and intoxicating drink is called khamr because it veils the intellect. This word has a com­mon application to intoxicating expressed juice of anything, or any intox­icating thing that clouds or obscures the intellect: “The general application is the more correct, because khamr was forbid­den when there was not in Madinah any khamr of grapes, the beverage of its inhabi­tants being prepared only from dates… it is sometimes prepared from grains”.57 The wider sense of khamr, as prepared from other things besides grapes, is borne out by the Quran as quoted in the next paragraph. According to Umar, when wine was prohibited, it was made of five things: grapes, dates, wheat, barley and honey.58 Hence khamr is intoxicating liquor prepared from anything.

Intoxicating liquors are first spoken of in deprecatory terms towards the close of the Makkah period:

“And of the fruits of the palms and the grapes, you obtain from them intoxi­cants and goodly provision.” — 16:67

Intoxicants are here spoken of in contrast to goodly provision. The prohibition against their use, however, belongs to the Madinah peri­od and the earliest revelation on this point is that contained in the first long chapter revealed at Madinah:

“They ask you [O Prophet] about intoxicants and games of chance. Say: In both of them is a great sin and some advantage for people, and their sin is greater than their ad­vantage.” — 2:219

This was the first stage in the prohibition of wine, but it was more of a recom­mendatory nature as it only says that the disadvantages of the use of in­toxicating liquors preponderate over their advan­tages. The next stage was that in which Muslims were prohibi­ted from coming to mosques while intoxicated:

“O you who believe, do not go near prayer when you are intoxi­cated till you know what you say…” — 4:43

Finally, intoxicating liquors were definitely forbidden:

“O you who believe, intoxicants and games of chance …  are only an uncleanness, the devil’s work; so shun it that you may succeed.” — 5:90

These three stages of the prohibition of wine are clearly mentioned in a hadith.59 On the last of these occasions, a proclamation was made by command of the Holy Prophet that wine was prohi­bited, and peo­ple who heard the proclamation emptied their stores of wine immediately, so that wine flowed in the streets of Madinah.60

As wine is prohibited on account of its intoxication, it is stated in a hadith that every intoxicant is prohibited.61 Herbs and drugs taken for intoxication and all other intoxicating things are therefore also forbidden; only a drink that does not intoxicate is allowed. It is further related that a man invited the Holy Prophet to a wedding feast at which his wife, the bride herself, served food, and at this feast a beverage of dried dates, over which only one night had passed, was used and there was no objection,62 because it had not become intoxicant. Malik ibn Anas was asked about fuqqā‘, a beverage made of barley or a kind of beer,63 and he said: “So long as it does not intoxicate there is no harm”.64 Nabīdh, or fresh juice of grapes over which not more than a night or a day had passed, is also allowed. Thus certain people are spoken of as having come to the Holy Prophet and asked him what to do with their grapes, and he told them to dry them and then make use of their juice in the even­ing if they were wet in the morning, and in the morning if they were wet in the evening.65 But when a beverage becomes intoxicant, even a small quantity of it, that could not intoxicate, is not allowed:

“That of which a large quantity intoxicates, even a small quantity of it is prohibited.” 66

The question whether a very small quantity may be given as a medicine is quite different. It is true that there is a hadith according to which a man, Tariq ibn Suwaid, was ordered by the Holy Prophet not to make wine, and when he said that he made it to be used as a medicine, the Holy Prophet replied that it was not a medicine but a disease.67 But this prohibition was, in all likelihood, directed only against the mak­ing of wine; and as Nawawi, the famous commentator of Muslim, ex­plains, in a serious case when life was in danger, wine could be used to save life, for even carrion and flesh of swine could be used in such a case.

It may be added here that trading in wine was also prohibited by the Holy Prophet,68 and indeed it was necessary to prohibit both the preparing of wine and trading in it when the use of it was no longer permitted.

Cleanliness recommended

The Holy Quran lays down a general rule on toilet as follows:

“Say: Who has forbidden the adornment (zīnat) of Allah, which He has brought forth for His servants, and the good provisions?” — 7:32

The word zīnat, in this verse, has generally been understood to mean apparel, but it has really a wider significance including both the dress and make-up of a person. Zīnat has further been exp­lained as including spiritual adorn­ment, such as knowledge and good beliefs; bodily adornment, such as strength and tallness of stature; and extrinsic adornment such as wealth and dignity.69 A good toilette is recommended even when going to a mosque:

“O children of Adam, Attend to your adornment at every time of prayer…” — 7:31

The Quran lays the greatest stress on cleanliness, and literally gives it a place next to godliness when it says in one of the earliest revelations addressing the Holy Prophet:

“O you who wrap yourself up! Arise and warn, and your Lord do magnify, and your garments do purify, and unclean­ness do shun.” — 74:1–5

Great stress is laid on outward as well as on inward purity throughout the Quran.

Clothing

No limitations are placed upon the form or quality of clothing, either in the Holy Quran or Hadith. The Holy Prophet is reported to have said:

“Eat and drink and wear clothes and be charitable, not being extravagant or self-conceited.”

Ibn Abbas said:

“Eat what you like and wear what you like, so long as you avoid two things: extravagance and vanity.” 70

Thus Islam requires no particular dress. A person may choose what he eats and what he wears. Anything which may serve as a covering for the body is allowed, the only requirement being that the clothes should be clean and good.71 The parts of the body which it is necessary to cover are, in a man, what is between the navel and the knee, and in a woman, all the person except the face and the hands as far as the wrists.72 Silk is forbidden to men73 but women are permitted to wear it,74 which shows that silk is not discarded for men on account of any impurity attaching to it, but because the wearing of it is not in consonance with the hard life which men have to lead to earn their living, and also because it is a luxury, and the money thus wasted would be better spent on the amelioration of the condition of the poor. In some cases even men were allowed to wear silk. Thus, the wearing of silk was allowed to Abdur Rahman and Zubair (two Companions of the Holy Prophet) on account of itching.75 Those who wear long garments or trail the train of the garment, in order to be looked at or for vanity, are censured.76

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Notes to Chapter 18

1. Lane’s Lexicon.

2. Editor’s note: Eating comparatively less has been described by the Holy Prophet as a sign distinguishing a believer from an unbeliever: “A believer eats in one intestine and an unbeliever eats in seven intestines” (Bukhari, book 70: ‘Food’, ch. 12, h. 5393–5397). In the Holy Prophet’s household, there were never three days in succession when they ate to the full on all of them (ibid., ch. 1, h. 5374).

3. Bukhari, book 72: ‘Slaughtering and Hunting’, ch. 30, h. 5531–5532.

4. Leviticus, 17:15.

5. Leviticus, 7:26.

6. Leviticus, 11:7.

7. Matthew, 7:6.

8. Matthew, 8:30–32; Mark, 5:11–13.

9. 2 Peter, 2:22.

10. Hidayah, v. 2, p. 421.

11. See Bukhari, book 72: ‘Slaughtering and Hunting’, ch. 12, heading. Note also that the Quran says: “Lawful to you is the game of the sea and its food” (5:96). According to Hadith reports in this reference, the “food” of the sea, as distinguished from its game, means fish thrown out on dry land or found after the water has receded, provided it is not spoiled.

12. Bukhari, book 72: ‘Slaughtering and Hunting’, ch. 17, h. 5500. Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, v. 3, pp. 115, 183. Imam Ahmad speaks of both saying Bismillāh and Allāhu Akbar, while Bukhari speaks only of mentioning the name of Allah, which in fact includes both.

13. Bukhari, book 72: ‘Slaughtering and Hunting’, ch. 15, ch. heading.

14. Hidayah, v. 2, p. 419.

15. Bukhari, book 72: ‘Slaughtering and Hunting’, ch. 18, h. 5501–5503.

16. Editor’s Note: This paragraph has been added from the author’s English translation of the Quran with commentary, footnote under 6:118.

17. Editor’s Note: “Followers of the Book” (ahl al-kitāb) refers to followers of earlier religions based on revealed scriptures. It is applied principally to Jews and Christians, but by extension includes followers of other revealed religions as well.

18. Bukhari, book 72: ‘Slaughtering and Hunting’, ch. 22, ch. heading.

19. Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, v. 1, p. 302.

20. Bukhari, book 72: ‘Slaughtering and Hunting’, ch. 21, h. 5507.

21. Editor’s Note: This topic has been added from other English writings of Maulana Muhammad Ali.

22. Abu Dawud, book 15: ‘Jihād’, ch. 47, h. 2548 (DS: ch. 44).

23. Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, v. 4, p. 55.

24. Bukhari, book 42: ‘Distribution of Water’, ch. 9, h. 2363.

Editor’s Note: In the next two Hadith reports, the Holy Prophet relates that he was shown hell in a vision, and he saw in it a woman being punished because she kept a cat locked up till it died of hunger. According to the second of the two reports, it was said to the woman (in the vision): “You neither fed it nor gave it water when you tied it up, nor did you set it free to eat insects from the earth” (h. 2365). Thus, just as there is reward from God for those who are kind to animals, there is punishment from God for torturing and afflicting distress on animals.

25. Bukhari, book 72: ‘Slaughtering and Hunting’, ch. 25, h. 5513–5516.

26. Ibid., ch. 2, h. 5476.

27. Ibid., ch. 3, h. 5477.

28. Ibid., ch. 5, h. 5479.

29. Ibid., ch. 8, h. 5484.

30. Ibid., ch. 12, h. 5493–5494, and ch. heading.

31. Ibid., ch. 29, h. 5530.

32. Abu Dawud, book 28: ‘Food’, ch. 33, h. 3802–3806 (DS: book 26, ch. 32).

33. Bukhari, book 56: ‘Jihād’, ch. 130, h. 2991.

34. Bukhari, book 28: ‘Penalty of hunting on Pilgrimage’, ch. 3, h. 1822.

35. Abu Dawud, book 28: ‘Food’,  ch. 26, h. 3788–3790 (DS: book 26, ch. 25).

36. Hidayah, v. 2, p. 424.

37. Bukhari, book 10: ‘Call to Prayer’, ch. 160, h. 853–855.

38. Tirmidhi, book 25: ‘Food’, ch. 14, h. 1808–1809 (DS: book 23).

39. Abu Dawud, book 28: ‘Food’, ch. 12, h. 3761 (DS: book 26, unnumbered ch. between ch. 11 and ch. 12).

40. Bukhari, book 70: ‘Food’, ch. 2, h. 5376,  and ch. 54, h. 5458–5459.

41. Ibid., ch. 51, h. 5454–5455.

42. Ibid., ch. 2, h. 5376.

43. Bukhari, book 74: ‘Drinks’, ch. 25, h. 5630. Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, v. 1, p. 309, 357.

44. Bukhari, book 70: ‘Food’, ch. 13, h. 5398–5399.

45. Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, v. 3, p. 199.

46. Bukhari, book 74: ‘Drinks’, ch. 16, h. 5615–5616; see also h. 5617.

47. Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, v. 3, p. 177.

48. Bukhari, book 70: ‘Food’, ch. 3, h. 5377–5378.

49. Ibid., ch. 21, h. 5409.

50. Ibid., ch. 1, h. 5373, ch. 11, h. 5392.

51. Ibid., ch. 29, h. 5426; book 74: ‘Drinks’, chs. 27–28, h. 5632­–5635.

52. Abu Dawud, book 28: ‘Food’, ch. 1, h. 3742 (DS: book 26). See also h. 3736–3741.

53. Ibid., ch. 5, h. 3748 (DS: book 26).

54. Ibid., ch. 4, h. 3747 (DS: book 26).

55. Ibid., ch. 15, h. 3764 (DS: book 26, ch. 14).

56. Bukhari, book 70: ‘Food’, ch. 55, h. 5460.

57. Lane’s Lexicon.

58. Bukhari, book 74: ‘Drinks’, ch. 5, h. 5588–5589.

59. Musnad of Ahmad ibn Hanbal, v. 2, p. 351.

60. Bukhari, book 46: ‘Oppression’, ch. 21, h. 2464; book 74: ‘Drinks’, ch. 3, h. 5582–5583.

61. Bukhari, book 64: ‘Military Expeditions’, ch. 60, h. 4343–4344; book 74: ‘Drinks’, ch. 4, h. 5585–5586.

62. Bukhari, book 74: ‘Drinks’, ch. 9, h. 5597.

63. Lane’s Lexicon.

64. Bukhari, book 74: ‘Drinks’, ch. 4, ch. heading.

65. Abu Dawud, book 27: ‘Drinks’, ch. 10, h. 3710–3712 (DS: book 25).

66. Ibid., ch. 5, h. 3681 (DS: book 25), see also h. 3687.

67. Muslim, book 36: ‘Drinks’, ch. 3, h. 1984 (DS: h. 5141).

68. Bukhari, book 34: ‘Sales and Trade’, ch. 24, h. 2084.

69. Raghib’s Mufradāt.

70. Bukhari, book 77: ‘Dress’, ch. 1, ch. heading.

71. Abu Dawud, book 34: ‘Dress’, ch. 16, h. 4062–4063 (DS: book 31, ch. 14).

72. Tāj al-‘Arūs (Dictionary) under the word ‘aura.

73. Bukhari, book 77: ‘Dress’, ch. 12, h. 5801; ch. 25, h. 5828–5835; ch. 36, h. 5849.

74. Ibid., ch. 30, h. 5840, h. 5842.

75. Ibid., ch. 29, h. 5839.

76. Ibid., ch. 5, h. 5788, h. 5791.

Editor’s Note: In the same book of Bukhari (book 77), in ch. 2, h. 5784, it is reported that when the Holy Prophet said that, on the day of Resurrection, Allah would not care to look upon the man who trails his garment behind him out of conceit, Abu Bakr expressed the anxiety that his garment tended to hang low on one side unless he took special care of it. The Holy Prophet replied: “You are not one of those who do it out of conceit”. Therefore it is not the long length of a garment which is condemned but the intention by the wearer to show superior status by means of it.